《环境卫生学》第五章

Environmental Hygiene Chapter 5

饮用水卫生
Drinking Water and Health
夏茵茵
Xia yin yin
公共卫生与管理学院
School of Public Health and Management
劳动卫生与环境卫生学教研室
Departments of Occupational and Environmental Hygiene
 氯化消毒副产物

Chlorination Disinfection
By-products (CDBPs)
Chlorine is the most commonly employed
chemical disinfectant in drinking water
treatment.

Chlorination of drinking water produced

disinfection by-products (DBPs) that may
have adverse health effects on humans.
 One of the first known uses of chlorine for disinfection was not until 1850
 In 1971 the American scientist Bellar discovered that chloroform was
ascent in the Ohio river water .  

chloroform appeared to be present in

drinking water originating from
drinking water purification plants.
 In disinfection, gaseous chlorine (Cl2) or
liquid sodium hypochlorite (bleach,
NaOCl) is added to, and reacts with,
water to form hypochlorous acid.
 Bromine----hypobromous acid
 In 1974, Rook discovered that
hypochlorous acid and hypobromous
acid also react with naturally occurring
organic matter to create many water
disinfection by-products, including the
four primary trihalomethanes:
 Chloroform - CHCl3
 Bromodichloromethane (BDCM) -
CHCl2Br
 Dibromochloromethane (DBCM) -
CHClBr2
 Bromoform - CHBr3
1. Classes of CDBPs

Two classes:

Volatile halogenated compounds

挥发性卤代有机物

Non-volatile halogenated compounds

难挥发性卤代有机物
Volatile halogenated compounds
挥发性卤代有机物

Trihalomethanes (THMs) 三卤甲烷类

-- chloroform 氯仿
-- bromodichloromethane 一溴二氯甲烷
-- dibromochloromethane 二溴一氯甲烷
-- bromoform 溴仿
 Non-volatile halogenated compounds
难挥发性卤代有机物
Haloacetates (Haloacetic Acids) (HAAs) 卤乙酸类
chloroacetate 氯乙酸
dichloroacetate (DCA) 二氯乙酸
trichloroacetate (TCA) 三氯乙酸
bromoacetate 溴乙酸
dibromoacetate (DBA) 二溴乙酸
tribromoacetate (TBA) 三溴乙酸
bromochloroacetate (BCA) 溴氯乙酸
Haloaldehydes 卤代醛
Haloketones 卤代酮
Chlorophenols 卤代酚
Haloacetonitriles 卤代腈
Halohydroxyfuranones 卤代羟基呋喃酮
MX , (3- 氯 -4-( 二氯甲基 )-5- 羟基 -2(5 氢 ) 呋喃酮 )
 The major by-products of chlorine
disinfection of water supplies

Trihalomethanes (THMs) （三卤甲烷类）

Haloacetic acids (HAAs) （卤乙酸类）

THMs, are currently used as indicator
chemicals for all potentially harmful
compounds formed by the addition of
chlorine to water.
 exposed to DBPs through drinking-
water and oral, dermal, and
inhalational contact with chlorinated
water .
 Inpopulations who take hot showers or
baths, inhalation and dermal
absorption in the shower accounts for
more exposure to THMs than drinking
water .
 The chloroform guideline value was
developed from a study showing
hepatotoxicity in beagle dogs
ingesting chloroform-laced
toothpaste for 7.5 years. (A
linearized multi-stage model based
on observed increases in kidney
tumors in male rats supports this
total daily intake calculation).
 The bromoform guideline value
was developed from a study
showing lesions on the livers of
rats exposed to bromoform for
90 days.
 The bromodichloromethane guideline
value was developed using a
linearized multi-stage model based
on observed increases in kidney
tumors in male mice.
 Which factors influence the formation of
disinfection byproducts?
The types of disinfection byproducts that are formed depend on a number of
influencial factors:
 - The type of disinfectant
- The disinfection dose
- The disinfection residu

When the dose and residu of the disinfectant are higher,

more disnfection byproducts are formed. 
- Circumstances of disinfection: reaction
time, temperature and pH

When the reaction time is shorter, higher

concentrations of trihalomethanes (THM) and
halogenic acetic acids (HAA) may be formed.
When the reaction time is longer, some temporary
forms of disinfection byproducts may become
disinfection endproducts, such as tribromine
acetic acid or bromoform. Haloacetonitrils (HAN)
and haloketons (HK) are decomposed.
 When temperatures increase, reactions
take place faster, causing a higher
chlorine concentration to be required
for a proper disinfection. This causes
more halogenic disinfection byproducts
to form. An increase in temperatures
also enhances the decomposition of
tribromine acetic acids, HAN and HK.
 When pH values are high, more hypochlorite
ions are formed, causing the effectivity of
chlorine disinfection to decrease. At higher
pH values, more THM is formed, whereas
more HAA is formed when pH values are
lower. At high pH values HAN and HK are
decomposed by hydrolysis, because of an
increase in hydrolysis reactions at higher pH
values.
 The levels of trihalomethanes in
drinking water are often higher in the
distribution network than at drinking
water production companies. When
hydrolysis takes place many disinfection
byproducts become trihalomethanes.
- The constituents of water
- Concentrations and properties of
naturally present organic matter
(NOM) in the water
 NOM is the predecessor of a disinfection
byproduct. The level of organic matter is
usually registered as the "total organic
carbon" concentration or the "dissolved
organic carbon" concentration.
 The composistion and concentration of
naturally present organic matter
determine the types and concentrations
of disinfection byproducts that will
eventually be formed.
 Naturally present organic matter
contains compounds, such as humic
acids, fulvine acids, hydrophobic acids,
hydrofobic neutral substances, transfilic
acids, transfilic neutral substances,
hydrophilic acids and hydrophilic neutral
substances.
3. Health hazards of CDBPs

Genotoxicity studies: mutagenic, DNA damage

Animal studies: carcinogenic, developmental

and reproductive effects

Studies of human populations: carcinogenic,

developmental and reproductive effects
 Epidemiological studies have looked at
the associations between exposure to
DBPs in drinking water with cancers,
adverse birth outcomes and birth defects.
 Meta-analyses and pooled analyses of
these studies have demonstrated
consistent associations for bladder
cancer and for babies being born small for
gestational age. 
 Early-term miscarriages have also been
reported. 
 The World Health Organization has
stated that "the risk of death from
pathogens is at least 100 to 1000 times
greater than the risk of cancer from
disinfection by-products (DBPs)" and
the "risk of illness from pathogens is at
least 10 000 to 1 million times greater
than the risk of cancer from DBPs".
DNA damage in HepG2 cells caused by chlorinated dr
inking water of D Lake using CBMNT and SCGE
Cancer and exposure to chlorination by-products:
animal studies

Chlorination by-product Study animal Outcome

Trihalomethanes (THMs) 三卤甲烷类

chloroform Mice Liver tumours
Rats Kidney tumours

bromodichloromethane Mice Liver and kidney tumours

Rats Colon and kidney
tumours
chlorodibromomethane Mice
Liver tumours
bromoform Rats
Colon tumours
Cancer and exposure to chlorination by-products:
animal studies

Chlorination by-product Study animal Outcome

Haloacetic Acids (HAAs) 卤代乙酸类

dichloroacetic acid Mice Liver tumours
Rats Liver tumours
trichloroacetic acid Mice Liver tumours
bromodichloroacetic acid Mice Liver and lung tumours
Mice Liver tumours
dibromoacetic acid
Halohydroxyfuranones 卤代羟基呋喃酮类
3-chloro-4- Rats cancer at multiple site
(dichloromethyl)-5-
hydroxy-2(5H)-furanone
(MX)
 MX ， 3- 氯 -4-( 二氯甲基 )-5 羟基 -2 (5H)- 呋喃
酮
A chlorination disinfection byproduct
Levels detected in drinking
water were low and ranged from
2 to 67 ng/L.
A strong direct acting mutagen
and clastogen.
A multiple site carcinogen in
male and female rats.
Health effects caused by secondary wat
er supply

 Secondary water supply

高层建筑二次加压供水

 建设部《城市供水水质管理规定》中所称
二次供水是指单位或者个人使用储存、加压
等设施，将城市公共供水或者自建设施供水
经储存、加压后再供给用户的形式。
Health hazards of contamination of sec
ondary water supply

Biologic contamination
→ water-born diseases

Chemical contamination
→ poisoning diseases
Water, sanitation and hygiene status in middle-
and low-income countries
 Data from 54 low- and middle-income countrie
s, the WHO/UNICEF report
 38% lack access to even rudimentary levels of
water
 19% lack sanitation
 35% do not have water and soap for handwashi
ng.
The global health challenge: preventing wa
ter quality-related disease

No safe drinking-water: almost 1 billion people

Diarrhoeal disease: 2 million annual deaths attri
butable to unsafe water, sanitation and hygiene

Cholera: more than 50 countries still report ch

olera to WHO
Schistosomiasis : an estimated 260 million infe
cted
Cancer and tooth/skeletal damage: millions expose
d to unsafe levels of naturally-occurring arsenic an
d fluoride
Thank for your
attention !