Industrial Instrumentation

Ch.E- 401

Muhammad Rashed Javed

2

Industrial Instrumentation
3 Pressure Measurement Methods

 Elastic pressure transducers

 Manometer Method

 Pressure measurement by measuring vacuum

 Electric pressure transducers

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4 Pressure Measurement

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5 Manometer Method
 A very simple device used to measure pressure is the manometer : a
fluid-filled tube where an applied gas pressure causes the fluid
height to shift proportionately.
 This is why pressure is often measured in units of liquid height (e.g.
inches of water, inches of mercury)
 Manometer is also called a liquid column manometer and is used
for low differential pressure measurement. The usual range of
pressure that falls for this device is around 0.2 MPa or 2 Kg/cm 2.
This device is used for most cases as it is very simple in
construction and highly accurate of all the types.

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6 Liquid Column Height

 Liquid column height in a manometer should always be interpreted

at the centerline of the liquid column, regardless of the shape of the
liquid’s meniscus (the curved air/liquid interface)

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7 Types of manometers
 U-tube manometers
 Well type manometer
 Barometer
 Inclined manometer
 Micro manometer
 Ring-type manometer

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8 U-Tube Manometer

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9 U-type manometer

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10 Well type manometer
 The well type manometer is
widely used because of
convenience , the reading of
only a single leg is required
in it.
 It consists of a very large
diameter vessel(well)
connected on one side to a
very small-sized tube.
 Thus a zero level moves
very little when pressure is
applied.

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11 Barometer
 Barometers inherently measure
the pressure difference
between the two ends of the
liquids column. If one end is at
zero absolute pressure , then
difference indicates the
absolute pressure.
 A barometer is a well type
absolute pressure gauge whose
pressure range is from zero
absolute to atmospheric
pressure.
 Its readings are generally in
millimeters of mercury(mm
hg)

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 Inclined manometer
12

The inclined manometer is an enlarged leg manometer with its

measuring leg inclined to the vertical axis by some angle. The
inclination is done to expand the scale and hereby to increase the
sensitivity.

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13 Inclined manometer
 Inclining the manometer tube means that liquid must travel farther along the
tube to generate the same change in (purely) vertical height than it would in a
vertical manometer tube. Thus, an inclined manometer tube causes an
amplification in liquid motion for a given amount of pressure change, allowing
measurements of greater resolution.
 If the transparent tube of a manometer, instead of being vertical, is set at an
angle θ to the horizontal, then a pressure difference corresponding to a vertical
difference of levels x gives a movement of the meniscus s = x/sin θ  along the
slope.
 If θ is small, a considerable magnification of the movement of the meniscus
may be achieved.

The angle of inclination is

of the order of 10ᵒ

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14 Micro manometer
 The micromanometer is used for the
measurement of extremely small
differences of pressure.
 The meniscus of the inclined tube is
at a reference level, viewing through
a magnifier
 This is done for the condition, p1=p2.
The adjustment is done by moving
the well up and down a micrometer.
For the condition p1 not equal to p2,
the shift in the meniscus position is
restored to zero by raising or
lowering the well as before and the
difference between these two
readings gives the pressure difference
in terms of height.

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15 Ring Balance Manometer
 The tube is made of polythene or other
light and transparent material.
 This tube is bent into the form of a ring
and is supported at the center by a
suitable pivot.
 The tubular chamber is divided in to two
parts by spilling, sealing, and filling with
a suitable light liquid like kerosene or
paraffin oil for isolating the two
pressures. Pressure taps are made with
two flexible tubings.
 Pressures P1 and P2 act against the
sealed walls as shown in the figure and
rotate the ring which is balanced by the
counter weight w.

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16 Indicating Fluids
 Liquid manometers measure differential pressure by balancing
the weight of a liquid between two pressures. Light liquids such
as water can measure small pressure differences; mercury or other
heavy liquids are used for large pressure differences.
 For an indicating fluid 3 times heavier than water, the pressure
measurement range is 3 times greater, but the resolution is
reduced.
 Indicating fluids can be colored water, oil, benzenes, bromides,
and pure mercury. When selecting an indicating fluid, check the
specifications for specific gravity, operating temperature range,
vapor pressure, and flash point. Corrosive properties, solubility,
and toxicity are also considerations.

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17 Indicating Fluids
 Of the various manometric fluids used, mercury has many
advantages like low vapor pressure, non-sticky nature, and wide
temperature range from -20 degree Celsius to 350 degree Celsius.
 Its high density is disadvantageous for low differential pressure
measurements.

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18 Pressure Measurement Methods

 Elastic pressure transducers

 Manometer Method

 Pressure measurement by measuring vacuum

 Electric pressure transducers

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19 Measurement of vacuum
 Capsule Gauges
 Mcleod Gauges
 Ionization Gauges
 Thermal conductivity Gauges
 Pirani Gauge
 Thermocouple Gauge

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20 Measurement of vacuum
 For pressure measurement below atmosphere or vacuum, different gauges are
available. Manometers and bell gauges can go up to 0.1 Torr. Diaphragm
gauges are usable up to a pressure of 10-3 Torr.
 For pressure below this value, electrical gauges like Pirani or Ionization
Gauges are used. Vacuum measurement is broadly classified into Mechanical
Type, Thermal Type, Ionization Type, and Radiation Vacuum Gauge.
 A standard manometric type mechanical gauge that is used down to 10-4 Torr
is the McLeod Gauge.
 Thermal type vacuum gauge can be further divided into Pirani Gauge
  and Thermocouple Type Vacuum Gauge.
 Ionization Gauge can be divided into Hot Cathode Type and Cold Cathode
Type.
 One type of radiation gauge called Alphatron is explained.

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21 McLeod Gauge

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22 McLeod Gauge Working
 The pressure to be measured (P1) is applied to the top of the reference column of the
McLeod Gauge as shown in diagram. The mercury level in the gauge is raised by
operating the piston to fill the volume as shown by the dark shade in the diagram. When
this is the case (condition – 1), the applied pressure fills the bulb and the capillary.
Now again the piston is operated so that the mercury level in the gauge increases. 

When the mercury level reaches the cutoff point, a known volume of gas (V1) is trapped
in the bulb and measuring capillary tube. The mercury level is further raised by operating
the piston so the trapped gas in the bulb and measuring capillary tube are compressed.
This is done until the mercury level reaches the “Zero reference Point” marked on the
reference capillary (condition – 2). In this condition, the volume of the gas in the
measuring capillary tube is read directly by a scale besides it. That is, the difference in
height ‘H’ of the measuring capillary and the reference capillary becomes a measure of
the volume (V2) and pressure (P2) of the trapped gas.

Now as V1,V2 and P2 are known, the applied pressure P1 can be calculated using
Boyle’s Law given by;

P1V1 = P2V2

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23 McLeod Gauge
Advantages
 It is independent of the gas
composition.
 It serves as a reference
standard to calibrate other
low pressure gauges.
 A linear relationship exists
between the applied pressure
and h
 There is no need to apply
corrections to the McLeod
Gauge readings.
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Disadvantages
 The gas whose pressure is to
be measured should obey the
Boyle’s law
 Moisture traps must be
provided to avoid any
considerable vapor into the
gauge.
 It measure only on a
sampling basis.
 It cannot give a continuous
output.
24 Pirani gauge
 A constant current is passed through the filament in the pirani gauge
chamber. Due to this current, the filament gets heated and assumes a
resistance which is measured using the bridge.
 Now the pressure to be measured (applied pressure) is connected to
the pirani gauge chamber. Due to the applied pressure the density of
the surrounding of the pirani gauge filament changes. Due to this
change in density of the surrounding of the filament its conductivity
changes causing the temperature of the filament to change.
 When the temperature of the filament changes, the resistance of the
filament also changes.
 Now the change in resistance of the filament is determined using the
bridge.
 This change in resistance of the pirani gauge filament becomes a
measure of the applied pressure when calibrated.

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25 Pirani gauge
 The main parts of the
arrangement are:
 A pirani gauge chamber which
encloses a platinum filament.
 A compensating cell to minimize
variation caused due to ambient
temperature changes.
 The pirani gauge chamber and the
compensating cell is housed on a
wheat stone bridge circuit as
shown in diagram.

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26 Pirani gauge
 A basic pirani gauge consists of a fine wire of tungsten or platinum
of about 0.002 cm in diameter. This wire is mounted in a tube and
then connected to the system whose vacuum is to be measured. The
temperature range is around (7-400) degree Celsius and the heating
current is between (10-100) mA.  A bridge circuit is also used for
greater accuracy. The pirani gauge is connected as one arm of the
bridge circuit. The figure is shown below.
  Vacuum measurement is usually taken in three ways.
 When the pressure changes, there will be a change in current. For this,
the voltage V has to be kept constant.
 The resistance R2 of the gauge is measured, by keeping the gauge
current constant.
 The null balance of the bridge circuit is maintained by adjusting the
voltage or current. This change is made with the help of a potentiometer
and the change brought will be a measure of the pressure produced.

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27 Pirani gauge
Advantages Disadvantages
 They are rugged and  Pirani gauge must be
inexpensive checked frequently.
 Give accurate results  Pirani gauge must be
calibrated from different
 Good response to pressure
gases.
changes.
 Electric power is a must for
 Relation between pressure
its operation.
and resistance is linear for
the range of use.
 Readings can be taken from
a distance.

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28 Thermocouple gauge
 The working of a thermocouple type vacuum gauge is very
similar to that of a pirani gauge. The only difference is that the
hot wire temperature is measured directly with
a thermocouple which is attached to a wire.
 For different pressures, the temperature is measured by the fine-
wire thermocouple, the hating current being initially fixed by the
resistance as shown in the figure.
 This device is usually used for comparison purposes. The
sensitivity of such an instrument depends on the pressure and the
wire current.

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29 Thermocouple gauge

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30 Ionization gauges
 The ionization gauges the utilize the ionizing property of gases to
detect the pressure of the system, these based pressure detection
on the measure of the particle density.
 A typical gauge comprise of three essential elements an electrons
producing element, an electron attracting grid and a collector.
 Based on the electron production the ionization gauge can be
divided into two types.
 Hot cathode method
 Cold cathode method

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31 Working of Ionization gauges
 A filament or a cathode produces electron by thermonic emission.
 Electrons can also be produced by using a radioactive e source, the
electrons produced are attracted by a positively charged grid.
 Grids designed with large interstices so that the fast moving electrons
pass many times without contacting the grid .
 The electron circulate randomly around grid until they collide with the
molecule of the gas.
 The gas molecule are ionized after the collision with highly energetic
electrons,
 This knocks out the electrons from the gas molecules and produce
positively charged particle. The collector is negatively charged and
when these positive ions are repelled by the grid and accelerate
towards the plate. This produces current in the system and the number
of ions collected in the collector is proportional to the density of the
gas and is representative of the pressure of the system

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32 Ionization gauges

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33 Cold cathode method
 The gauge consists of a
cathode, grid anode and a
negative plate. The negative
plate is at ~10V
 negative with respect to the
cathode. The electrons
emitted by the hot cathode
(filament) are
 speeded up by the electric
field and the positive ions
produced are collected by the
negative plate.

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34 Hot cathode method

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