INSTRUMENTATION

& CONTROL
PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS
Table of Contents
Introduction
Nearly all industrial processes (e.g metal, and chemical etc.) use liquids, gases or both. Controlling
these processes requires measurement and control of liquid and gas pressures. Thus, pressure
measurement is one of the most important of all the process measurements.

Pressure:
“Pressure is defined as the amount of force applied to a surface or distributed over it and is
measured as the force per unit area.”
The force used to calculate the pressure must act at a right angle to the surface.
Pressure instruments usually refer to those that are used for the measurement of the pressure
exerted by the fluid. Following observation of definition:
Independent of direction, unaffected by the shape
Different Types of Pressure 1/3
When pressure is measured, it is usually desired to read it in terms of either gauge pressure,
absolute pressure or vacuum (or differential ) pressure. Different types of pressures are
discussed below:

1. Gauge Pressure:
Most liquid pressure gauges use atmospheric pressure ( 14.7 psi ) as a zero point, i.e. they
indicate a pressure of zero psi at the surface of a liquid even though the pressure is actually 14.7
psi (1 kg/cm2)
A gauge that indicates zero at atmospheric pressure measures the difference between actual
and atmospheric pressure.
The difference is called gauge pressure. It is abbreviated as psig ( pounds per square inch gauge)
Different Types of Pressure 2/3
2. Absolute Pressure:
Absolute pressure is actual total pressure (including atmospheric pressure) acting on a surface. It is
abbreviated as psia ( pounds per square inch absolute)

3. Vacuum or Differential Pressure:

Gauges that indicate gauge pressure may be designed to indicate pressures below zero. Such a
gauge is called a vacuum gauge.
Gauges that indicate absolute pressure cannot indicate pressures below zero, because zero is a
perfect vacuum.
In a differential pressure measurement, the gauge pressure is the difference between the absolute
pressure of the fluid and the atmospheric pressure
Different Types of Pressure 3/3
4. Static Pressure and Velocity Pressure:
When the fluid is in equilibrium, the pressure at a particular point is identical in all directions
and independent of orientation. This is called static pressure.
Velocity pressure is the difference between the total pressure and the static pressure:
Velocity pressure = Total pressure – Static pressure
Methods of Pressure Measurement
Most pressure instruments measure a difference between two pressures, one usually being that
of the atmospheric. The different method of pressure measurement is given below:
1. Manometer Method.
2. Elastic pressure transducers.
3. Pressure measurement by measuring vacuum.
4. Pressure measurement by balancing the force produced on a known area by a measured
force.
5. Electrical pressure transducers.
1. Manometers
The manometers is the simplest measuring instrument used for the gauge pressure (Low-range
pressure ) measurements, by balancing the pressure against the weight of a column of liquid.
The action of all manometers depends on the effect of pressure exerted by a fluid at a depth.
The different types of manometers are discussed below:

1.1. U-Tube Manometer:

The U-tube is the simplest form of manometer and is used for experimental work in
laboratories. By choice of liquids, a wide range of pressure can be recorded.
In the U-tube manometer, the application of pressure causes the liquid in one leg to go down
while that in the other leg goes up, so there is no fixed reference.
This tends to make the measurement of the height more difficult than it would be if one surface
could be maintained at some fixed level.
1. Manometers
1.1. U-Tube Manometer……………
1. Manometers
1.2. Well-Type Manometer:
In the well manometer, one leg has a much larger diameter than the other leg. When there is no
pressure difference the liquid levels will be at the same height for a zero reading.
An increase in the pressure in the larger leg will cause a larger change in the height of the liquid
in the smaller leg.
The pressure across the larger area of the well must be balanced by the same volume of liquid
rising in the smaller leg.
The effect is similar to the balance of pressure and volume in hydraulic jacks.
1. Manometers
1.3. Barometer:
Manometers inherently measure the pressure difference between the two ends of the liquid
column, if one end is at zero absolute pressure, then the difference in height of the liquid from
the zero reference indicates the absolute pressure.
A barometer is a well-type absolute pressure gauge whose pressure range is from zero absolute
to atmospheric pressure.
Its readings are generally in millimeters of mercury (mm Hg).
With a barometer, high vacuums are not measured.
The pressure in the evacuated portion of the barometer is not really absolute zero but rather
the vapour pressure of the filling fluid, mercury, at ambient temperature.
1. Manometer
1.4. Inclined Manometer:
This inclined tube manometer or slant manometer is an enlarged leg manometer with its measuring leg
inclined to the vertical axis by some angle.
The angle of inclination is of the order of 10 degree. The inclination is done to expand the scale and
thereby to increase the sensitivity.
The inclined manometer is used to measure very small pressure differences.

1.5. Errors in Manometers:

(a). Effect of Temperature.
(b). Capillary Effect.
(c). Effect of Variable Meniscus.
1. Manometers
ADVANTAGES: DISADVANTAGES

They are simple and time proven. They are large and bulky.
They have high accuracy and sensitivity. They need leveling.
Wide range of filling fluids of varying specific They are not portable.
gravities are available in manometers.
In a manometer, the measured fluid must be
Its cost is reasonable. compatible with manometer fluid.

They are suitable for low pressure and low There is no over-range protection in
differential pressure applications. manometer.
Condensation may be present problems in
manometer.
2. Elastic Pressure Transducers
This type of pressure transducers use elastic primary sensing elements such as the Bourdon
tube, bellows and diaphragm.

2.1. The C-type Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge:

The Bourdon tube is the most frequently used pressure gauge because of its simplicity and
rugged construction. It covers ranges from 0-15 psig to 1-100,000 psig, as well as vacua from 0-
30 inches of mercury.
A C-type Bourdon tube consists of long thin-walled cylinder of non-circular cross section, sealed
at one end, made from materials such as phosphor bronze, steel and beryllium copper, and
attached by light line work to the mechanism which operates the pointer.
As the fluid under pressure enters the tube, it tries to change the section of the tube from oval
to circular, and this tends to straighten out the tube.
2. Elastic Pressure Transducers
Bourdon tubes are generally made in three shapes: (1) C-type, (2) Helical type, and (3) Spiral
There are two adjustments in Bourdon tube (1) Multiplication Adjustment (2) Angularity
Bourdon tubes are generally made in three shapes: (1) C-type, (2) Helical type, and (3) Spiral

There are two adjustments in Bourdon tube (1) Multiplication Adjustment (2) Angularity

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

There cost is low. They have low spring gradient.

They have simple construction They are susceptible to shock and vibration.
They have been time-tested in applications They are susceptible to hysteresis.
These tubes are available in a wide variety of
ranges, including very high ranges.
They are adaptable to transducer design for
electronic instruments.
They allow high accuracy, especially in relation
to cost.
2. Elastic Pressure Transducers
2.2. Diaphragm Pressure Transducers:
(2.2.1). Metallic Diaphragm Gauge:
It consist of thin diaphragm made of materials
such as brass or bronze. A pointer is attached
to the diaphragm.
The force pressure against the effective area of
the diaphragm causes a deflection of the
diaphragm.
In some cases, the deflection of the diaghragm
is opposed by the spring qualities of the
diaghragm itself and in other cases a spring is
added to limit deflection of diaghragm.
(2.2.2.). Slack Diaphragm Gauge:
It is more difficult to measure pressure below
the atmospheric pressure because the
changes are small.
A diaphragm with a large area produces a
large change in force from a small change in
pressure.
A slack diaphragm gauge with a weak spring
and a large area can be used over pressure
ranges as low as 0.01-0.40 mm Hg (torr). It is
possible to achieve accuracies of 1-2%
2. Elastic Pressure Transducers
2.2. Diaphragm Pressure Transducers:
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

Their cost is moderate. They are lack good vibration and shock
They possess high over-range characteristics.
resistance.

They are adaptable to absolute and differential They are difficult to repair.
pressure measurement. They are limited to relatively low pressures.
They have good linearity.
They are available in several materials for good
corrosion resistance.
They are small in size.
The are adaptable to slurry services.
2. Elastic Pressure Transducers
2.2.3. Bellows:
The bellows-type gauges are used for measurement of absolute pressures. It is somewhat more
sensitive than bourdon gauges. It is used for the range down to 155.1 Hg (3 psi ).
The bellows are made of an alloy which is ductile, has high strength and retains its properties
over long use, i.2. has very little hysteresis effect. They are used in two forms.
Bellows enclosed in shell which is connected to pressure source. Pressure acting on the outside
of the bellow compresses the bellows and moves its free end against the opposing force of the
spring.
Phosphor bronze is the commonly used material for bellows and the springs are made of
carefully heat treated metal.
2. Elastic Pressure Transducers
2.2.3. Bellows:
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

Its cost is moderate. It needs ambient temperature compensation.

It is able to deliver high force.
It is adaptable for absolute and differential
pressures.
It is good in the low-to-moderate pressure
range.
It is unsuitable for high pressures.
The availability of metals and work-hardening
of some of them is limited.
It is unsuitable for zero and the stiffness.
3. Measurement of Vacuum
3.1. CAPSULE GAUGES
The used in low for low pressure
measurements and also where highest
accuracy is required. The capsule is made of
beryllium copper. It uses two corrugated
diaphragms joined at the edges.
In absolute pressure indicators, the capsule is
evacuated and sealed and the measured
pressure is admitted to the inside of the
instrument case which is of air tight structure.
3.2. MCLEOD GAUGES
The McLeod gauge is used for measuring very
low pressures down to one hundred-
thousandth of an inch of mercury. The McLeod
gauge amplifies pressures by compressing a
gas into small volumes.
The McLeod gauge is a very accurate pressure-
measuring device and often serves as a
standard for calibrating other low-pressure
gauges. It can be designed to measure
pressures as low as 0.05 microns
3. Measurement of Vacuum
3.4. THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY GAUGE
Thermal conductivity gauges measures
pressure by measuring the changes in the
ability of a gas to conduct heat. The
conductivity of a gas does not change when
the pressure changes, until the pressure drops
below about one torr.
The relationship between changes in
conductivity and changes in pressure work
over pressure range.
IONIZATION GAUGES
An ionization gauge measures the sensitiviy off
a gas. The operating principle of the ionization
gauge follows Boyle’s law.
The instrument consist of a chamber in which
some of the gas molecules are changed to
positively charged ions.
The number of ions increases in proportion to
the density of the gas inside the chamber.
4. Force-Balance Pressure Gauges
4.1. Dead Weight Piston Gauge:
Dead-weight piston gauge is used for the measurement of higher steady pressures, and for
checking the elastic diaphragm or Bourdon gauges. It is used as a standard of pressure
measurement. It consists of a very accurately machined, bored and finished piston which is
inserted into a close fitting cylinder.
For calibration purposes, first a known (calculated) weight is placed on the platform and the
fluid pressure is applied on the other end of the piston until enough force is developed to lift the
piston-weight combination and the piston floats freely within cylinder between limit stops.
In order to reduce the friction between the piston and the cylinder, the piston is generally
rotated while a reading is being taken.
4. Force-Balance Pressure Gauges
4.2. Ring Balance Gauge:
Ring balance is gauge is frequently used for measurement of low differential pressures of the
order of few inches of water gauge.
It consist of hollow ring of circular section, partitioned at its upper part and partially filled with a
liquid in order to form two pressure measuring chambers.
The body of the ring is supported at its centre by a knife edge resting on a bearing surface, or by
roller-bearing or ball bearings.
The fluids whose pressure difference are required, are led into the ring through flexible
connections. They are placed so their length and movement are at minimum.
4. Force-Balance Pressure Gauges
4.3. Bell Type Pressure Gauge:
(A). THICK WALL BELL GAUGE
It consists of a bell suspended with the open
end downwards in a sealed chamber, usually
made of cast iron, containing a liquid.
The higher pressure is led into the inside and
the lower pressure acts on the outside of the
bell.
The thickness and the density of the material of
which the bell is made, its cross-sectional area,
and the density of the sealing liquid, are
determined by the range of pressure for which
the instrument is meant to be used.
(B). THIN WALL BELL GAUGE
The bell is made of thin material and the
controlling force is obtained by means of a
spring.
The difference between the force due to the
pressure acting on the inside and that acting on
the outside causes the change in length of the
spring, which in turn changes the position of the
bell.
In this type of instrument the range is
determined by the modulus of elasticity of the
spring and the density of the sealing liquid.
5. Electrical Pressure Transducers:
“A transducer is a device which converts one form of energy into another form of energy”
however, in the field of electrical instrumentation, “a transducer is defined as a device which
converts a physical quantity, a physical condition, or mechanical output into an electrical signal”.
An electrical transducer consists of three elements:
1. Pressure sensing element such as a bellow, a diaphragm or a Bourdon tube.
2. Primary conversion element, e.g. resistance or a voltage.
3. Secondary conversion element.
5. Electrical Pressure Transducers:
5.1. Strain Gauge Pressure Transducer:
Strain gauge is a passive type resistance pressure transducer whose electrical resistance changes
when it is stretched or compressed. It can be attached to a pressure sensing diaphragm.
The starin gauge is a fine wire which changes its resistance when mechanically strained, due to
physical effects. A strain gauge may be attached to the diaphragm so that when the diaphragm
flexes due to the process pressure applies on it, the strain gauge stretches or compresses.
The resistance change of a similar gauges, as of a wheatstone bridge and applying excitation to
the bridge. The bridge output voltage is then measure of the pressure sensed by the strain
gauges.
5. Electrical Pressure Transducers:
5.1. Strain Gauge Pressure Transducer:
ADVANTAGES
They are small and easy to install.
They have good accuracy.
They possess good stability.
They have high output strength.
They have high over-range capacity.
They are simple to maintain.
They contain no moving parts.
DISADVANTAGES
Their cost is moderate to high.
Electrical readout is necessary in these
transducers.
They require constant voltage supply.
The require temperature compensation due to
problems presented by temperature
variations.
5. Electrical Pressure Transducers:
5.2. Potentiometric Pressure Transducers:
There is a potentiometer which is made by winding resistance wire around an insulated cylinder.
A moveable electrical contact called a wiper, slides along the cylinder, touching the wire at one
point on each turn.
A mechanical linkage from the pressure sensing element controls the position of the wiper on
the potentiometer.
The position of the wiper determines the resisitance of the potentiometer, which in turns
determines the pressure.
5. Electrical Pressure Transducers:
5.2. Potentiometer Pressure Transducers:
ADVANTAGES
The resistance can be easily converted into a
standard voltage or current signals.
These pressure transducers are simpler and
less expensive than other types of transducers.
They are easy to design to meet special
requirements in specific applications.
DISADVANTAGES
They have a finite resolution, i.e. the wiper does
not move continually along the wire. It touches
the wire at only one point on each turn. As the
wiper moves from one turn to the next, the
resistance jumps to the next. The potentiometer
cannot indicate pressure changes smaller than
the increment from one to the next.
Wear occurs as the wiper moves back and forth
across the wire. These parts eventually wear
out, and the transducer must then be replaced.
5. Electrical Pressure Transducers:
5.3. Capacitive Pressure Transducers:
The principle of operation of capacitive pressure transducer is based upon the familiar
capacitance equation of the parallel plate capacitor.
It consist of a fixed plate and a moveable plate which is free to move as the pressure applied
changes.
According to change in pressure the moveable plate also changes its position, due to which the
distance d is changed.
With an increase in pressure, the distance d becomes less, due to which the capacitance C is
increased.
5. Electrical Pressure Transducers:
5.3. Capacitance Pressure Transducer:
ADVANTAGES
It gives rapid response to changes in pressure.
Response time as short as ten milli seconds
are possible.
It can withstand a lot of variations and shock,
as in a hard landing by an unmanned
spacecraft on the surface of planet.
It has a good frequency response. It can
measure both static and dynamic changes.
DISADVANTAGES
The metallic parts of the capacitor must be
insulated from each other. In general the
frame must be earthed.
The performance of a capacitive transducer is
severely affected by dirt and other
contaminants, because they change the
dielectric constant.
Errors may be caused by erratic and distorted
signals.
5. Electrical Pressure Transducers:
5.4. Reluctance Pressure Transducers:
Reluctance in magnetic circuit is equivalent to resistance in an electrical circuit.
The spacing between the two magnetic davices changes, the reluctance between them also
changes. Thus, a pressure sensor can be used to change the spacing between two coils by
mivinng one part of the magnetic circuit.
The motion changes the reluctance between the coils which in turn changes the voltage induced
by one coil in the other. They are several types:
(A). Linear Variable Differential Transformer
(B). Servo Pressure Transducers
(C). Piezoelectric Pressure Transducers