Republic of the Philippines

BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY

Pablo Borbon Main Campus II
Alangilan, Batangas City

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE, AND FINE ARTS

Chemical and Food Engineering Department

ChE 413: PROCESS DYNAMICS AND CONTROL

AY 2020-2021 1st Semester

PROCESS CONTROL SENSORS, GAUGES, AND DEVICES FOR MEASURING AND

CONTROLLING PRESSURE

John Patrick A. Ebora

Mark Niel R. Encarnacion
Kim Brian A. Endaya
Margie Camille D. Gonzales
Rizzah Mae E. Robles
Seth F. Robiso
Vincent Martin Lee A. Villano
Justine D. Villanueva

ChE 3102
Groups 5 and 6

November 2020
 Process Control Sensors, Gauges, and Devices for Measuring and Controlling
Pressure

1. Liquid Column Manometer

1.1. Overview on Liquid Column Manometer
Liquid column manometers consist of a column of liquid in a tube whose
ends are exposed to different pressures. The column will rise or fall until its weight
(a force applied due to gravity) is in equilibrium with the pressure differential
between the two ends of the tube (a force applied due to fluid pressure).
Two types of liquid column manometer are commonly used, which is U-tube
manometer and the inclined manometer.

1.2. U-Tube Liquid Column Manometer

This type of pressure gauge measurement is a common one, the u-tube is
filled with mercury (for high pressure) or water (for low pressure) and a
measurement for length (depending on the unit) was between the manometer
legs.

Fig. 1 Fig. 2
 From the first illustration (Fig. 1), the manometer is used by exposing both
ends at atmospheric pressure which shows equal height for each liquid column.
Figure 2 shows that unequal pressure for both ends shows the length or height
difference by the liquid in the liquid column, which it is the pressure difference.
The illustration for the liquid column is expressed as:
Δ𝑃 = 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ
It is where:
Δ𝑃 = Differential Pressure
𝑃1 = Pressure at Low-Pressure Connection
𝑃2 = Pressure at High-Pressure Connection
𝜌 = Density of Indicating Liquid (at Specific Temperature)
𝑔 = Acceleration due to Gravity
ℎ = Difference in Column Heights
The resulting pressure is the difference between forces exerted per unit of
surface area of the liquid columns, with pounds per square inch (psi) or newtons
per square meter (pascals) as the units. The manometer is so often used to
measure pressure that the difference in column heights is also a common unit.
This is expressed in inches or centimeters of water or mercury at a specific
temperature, which can be changed to standard units of pressure with a
conversion table.
All pressure measurements are differential. The reference can be zero
absolute pressure (a total vacuum), atmospheric pressure (the barometric
pressure), or another pressure. With one leg of a manometer open to the
atmosphere (see Figure 3A), the measured pressure is that which exceeds
atmospheric pressure, which at sea level is 14.7 psi, 101325 Pa, or 76 cmHg.

Fig. 3
𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒
𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 [may have positive or negative values]
Gauge pressure is measured in Fig. 3 and it considered in the solution for
both positive and negative pressure.

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 1.3. Inclined Liquid Column Manometer
It is slightly curved tube with a liquid inside, typically a form of oil mixture.
Along the tube's middle portion are graduations. The graduations are commonly
hundredths of an inch, depending on the manometer's manufacturer.

Fig. 4
From Fig. 4, the user places the manometer in a gas draft flow. The
pressure exerted by the flow presses against the internal liquid. The amount of
liquid displacement is viewed and measured through the tube's graduations,
producing a pressure value. This type of manometer is recommended for low
pressure gauges, where 1 in. of vertical liquid height can be stretched to 12 in. of
scale length, which means it has high accuracy pressure measurement, and it is
advantageous for other manometers.

2. Bourdon Tube Manometers

2.1. Introduction to Pressure Gauges with Elastic Elements
Indicating pressure gauges with elastic measuring elements are used very
extensively to measure pressures in technical applications because they are both
robust and easy to handle. These gauges incorporate measuring elements which
deform elastically under the influence of pressure. Mechanical pressure gauges
are produced with bourdon tube, diaphragm and bellow and spring elements and
are accordingly different. The measuring elements are made of copper alloys,
alloyed steels or produced in special materials for specific measuring applications.
Pressures are only measurable in conjunction with a reference pressure.
The atmospheric pressure alone serves as reference pressure and the pressure
gauge shows how much the measured pressure is higher or lower in relation to
the given atmospheric pressure (i.e. an overpressure measuring instrument).

2.2. Bourdon Tube Gauge

“A Bourdon tube is the working mechanism of analogue pressure measurement
devices and is based on the principle of elasticity.”

2.3. What is a Bourdon Tube?

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 Analogue pressure measurement gauges employ Bourdon tubes
(Photo Credit: Ensuper/Shutterstock)
The working mechanism for any analogue pressure measurement device is
called a Bourdon tube. It is named after Eugene Bourdon, its inventor, who
developed the concept and patented it. Even in the present day and age, the
phenomenon of elasticity on which it is based provides fairly reliable results,
despite very little development in the underlying technology.
It includes an elastic tube which, when subjected to pressure, flexes. By
attaching the tube to a gearing device that in turn connects to a scale / gauge
pointer, this movement is harnessed.

2.4. How does a Bourdon Tube Work?

A party horn is the simplest demonstration of a Bourdon tube gauge

(Photo Credit: Anatoliy Karlyuk/Shutterstock)
The perfect example of how a Bourdon tube works is a party horn. The air
causes the flattened paper / plastic coil to unfurl as one blows through the
mouthpiece, making a noisy sound in the process. The amount of uncoiling and
the intensity of the sound generated is directly proportional to the force applied at
the mouthpiece.

4
 Bourdon gauge tube disassembled (Photo Credit: ekipaj/Shutterstock)
This movement can be leveraged for measuring pressure or other
associated parameters by attaching a pointer and a dial at the coiled end of the
tube.

2.5. Construction of a Bourdon Tube Gauge

A Bourdon tube can be made from many materials, but it is essential for
them to have spring-tempering properties. Spring tempering strengthens the
metal while enhancing elastic properties, thereby making repeated coiling and
uncoiling possible.

Making a Bourdon Tube Gauge

The tube is made by drilling a round or elliptical cross-section into a stock
of the desired material. It is then passed through a series of rollers that bend it
into the required shape and flatten it to coil it. The hollow created by drilling
expands and contracts based on the movement of the working fluid, resulting in
coiling and uncoiling of the Bourdon tube.
Some commonly used materials include steel alloys, beryllium copper and
phosphor bronze. The inlet pressure can be exerted by any medium, including air,
water and oil. While stainless steel is suitable for heavy oils, beryllium copper is

5
 suited for extremely high-pressure applications and phosphor bronze is used for
general applications that employ air, water and even some light oils.

2.6. Types of Bourdon Tubes

2.6.1. C-Type

C-Type Bourdon Tubes

This is the most commonly found tube. It can withstand pressures of up
to 10,000 kilopascals. It consists of a tube bent into a C shape and is used for
low-pressure applications.

2.6.2. Spiral Type

Spiral Bourdon Tube

This type of Bourdon tube is spiral in shape and suitable for pressures
up to 28,000 kilopascals.

2.6.3. Helical Type

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 Helical Bourdon Tube
This type of Bourdon tube is helical in shape and suitable for pressures of
up to 500,000 kilopascals.
While C-type Bourdon tubes are inexpensive to manufacture and easier to
find, their pressure sensitivity is limited. Spiral and helical tubes are therefore used
for high-pressure applications or those where more precision is required.

2.7. Advantages and Disadvantages of Bourdon Tubes

Bourdon tubes have many advantages, which result in their wide
employment:
• Bourdon tubes have many advantages, which result in their wide
employment:
• They give reasonably accurate results.
• They are simple in construction and inexpensive to produce.
• They can be safely used for the accurate measurement of high
pressures.
• They can be modified to generate electrical outputs.
• Bourdon tube gauges have high repeatability, i.e., they can accurately
record the same pressures multiple times.
Despite being almost omnipresent in pressure measurement devices,
Bourdon tubes have certain inherent disadvantages:
• A Bourdon tube responds slowly to changes in pressure.
• An amplification mechanism is needed to generate readings, as the
movement of the free end of the Bourdon tube is quite low.
• While Bourdon tube gauges can produce accurate results, they cannot
be used for precision applications.
• Bourdon tubes suffer from hysteresis, a condition that causes the tube
to retract slower when moving from a high scale reading to a low scale
reading. This results in the scale showing a slightly “higher than actual”
reading.
• Bourdon tubes are medium-sensitive, i.e., they are usually calibrated to
only work with a particular medium. Using another medium can affect

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 the reading owing to its own density and weight, and thus result in an
error. This must be accounted for before changing the medium.

2.8. Applications and Future Scopes of Bourdon Tubes

Any type of Bourdon tube can measure pressure proportional to the arc it
subtends, i.e., the more curved the arc, the greater is the pressure sensitivity of
the device. Thus, spiral and helical tubes are more sensitive to pressure changes
than a C-type tube. This, however, increases the complexity, and consequently,
the cost of manufacturing.
1. Direct pressure measurement – Measuring the absolute pressure of any
system.
2. Differential pressure measurement – Measuring the difference in
pressure of two pressurized systems.

Bourdon tube gauges are often dependent on electronic systems in modern

applications
(Photo Credit: florin oprea/Shutterstock)
With the improvement in semiconductor technology, Bourdon tubes are
either dependent on or being completely replaced by electronic systems that can
be used in high-risk environments.
However, Bourdon tube gauges will continue to dominate the pressure
measurement industry until their electronic counterparts become economically
viable for a wider range of applications.

3. Bellows
3.1. Overview on Bellows
Bellows is a thin-walled, one-piece metallic pressure containing element
appearing as a stack of round edged discs that is used to measure pressure.
When the pressure inside the bellows increases, these discs thicken and the
length of the bellows increases. This increase in length is the sum of the
expansion of all the discs and is a measure of the pressure inside the bellows.

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3.2. Working Principle of Bellows
Bellows work on the principle of elasticity

3.3. Functions and Uses of Bellows

The bellows are used in two forms. In one arrangement, pressure is applied
to one side of the bellows and the resulting deflection is counter balanced by a
spring. This arrangement indicates the gauge pressure. In the second
arrangement, the differential pressure is also indicated. In this device, one
pressure is applied to the inside of one sealed bellow while the other pressure is
applied to the inside of another sealed bellow. By suitable linkage and calibration
of the scale, the pressure difference is indicated by a pointer on the scale.

9
 3.4. Advantages of Bellows
• It is used to measure absolute & differential pressure.
• It is used to measure low or medium pressure rang.

3.5. Disadvantages of Bellows

• It is not useful to measure high value pressure
• Bellows joints can fail catastrophically.
• No in place maintenance or repair can be performed – they must be
replaced if damaged.

4. Elastic Diaphragm Gauges

4.1. Overview on Elastic Diaphragm Gauges
Diaphragm elements in pressure gauges are circular-shaped and thin. They
are either clamped around the rim between two flanges or welded and subjected
to the pressure of media acting on one side. The deflection caused in this way is
used as a measurement for the pressure and is indicated by a pointer.
Diaphragm elements may be classified into two types including those that
utilize the elastic characteristics of the diaphragm and those that are opposed by
a spring or other separate elastic element. The first type of diaphragm can be flat
or corrugated metal disks which commonly made up of brass, phosphor bronze,
beryllium copper, and stainless steel. This is used for the measurement of high
pressure. Another type of diaphragm is used for containing the pressure and
exerting a force on the opposing elastic element. This diaphragm is a flexible or
slack diaphragm of rubber, leather, impregnated fabric, or plastic. The non-elastic
nature of the material requires external springs to oppose the diaphragm, to
enable calibration and ensure precise operation. This type of diaphragm is used
for the measurement of extremely low pressure, vacuum, or differential pressure.
The diaphragm pressure gauge is mechanically connected to the
transmission mechanism which will amplify the small deflections of the diaphragm
and transfer them to pointer. These diaphragm sensors are very sensitive to rapid
pressure changes.

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 Diaphragm gauge is well suited for applications in chemical and
petrochemical, textile, food, and any other process industries, as well as water
and sewage treatment plants and electric power plants.

4.2. Properties of Diaphragm Gauge

• Relatively high actuating force
• Reduced sensitivity to shock and vibration
• Higher overload capacity
• Can be protected against extremely corrosive media
• Highly viscous, impure or crystallizing process media
Pressure ranges in a diaphragm type pressure gauge are between 0 to 16
mbar and 0 to 40 bar in accuracy class from 0.6 to 2.5 %.

4.3. Principles of Elastic Diaphragm Gauges

When an elastic diaphragm transducer is subjected to a pressure, the
diaphragm membrane deflects. This deflection is proportional to the applied
pressure when calibrated.

4.4. Functions of Elastic Diaphragm Gauges

The bottom side of the diaphragm is exposed to the pressure which is to be
measured. Due to the applied pressure, the diaphragm deforms and the amount
of movement depends upon the magnitude of the applied pressure. The greater
the pressure, the greater the movement. When the applied pressure increases,
the diaphragm flexes upwards, lifting the ball point and link, thus causing the
quadrant to rotate anti-clockwise around the pivot. The anti-clockwise movement
of the quadrant moves the pinion and hence, the pointer clockwise, indicating an
increase of pressure on the scale. Overload protection is provided by the
underside of the top flange against which the diaphragm will seat if the gauges
are over pressured.

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 For the arrangement with the parallel plate capacitor, the movable plate
moves upwards, thus decreasing the gap between the plates. This makes the
capacitance of the capacitor becomes a measure of the applied pressure. As the
top side of the diaphragm is usually subjected to the atmospheric pressure
(generally less than the applied pressure), elastic diaphragm gauges usually read
gauge pressure.

4.5. Advantages of Elastic Diaphragm Gauges

• They have a linear scale for a wide range.
• They can withstand over pressure and hence they are safe to be used.
• No permanent zero shift.
• They can measure both absolute and gauge pressure, that is, differential
pressure.

4.6. Disadvantages of Elastic Diaphragm Gauges

• Shocks and vibrations affect their performance and hence they are to be
protected.
• When used for relatively high or over-pressure measurement, the
diaphragm gets damaged easily.

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 • These gauges are difficult to be repaired.
• More expensive than other pressure sensors.

4.7. Applications of Elastic Diaphragm Gauges

1. They are used to measure medium pressure.
2. They can also be used to measure low pressures including vacuum.
3. They are used to measure draft in chimneys of boilers.

5. Strain Gauge Pressure Transducers

5.1. Overview of Strain Gauges
Strain gauges refer to the electrical devices that are used to obtain the
measurement of strain on an object. Recall that the deformation occurs in the
shape of the object due to the applied external forces. This deformation in the
shape is both compressive or tensile is called strain, and it is measured by the
strain gauge. When an object deforms within the limit of elasticity, either it
becomes narrower and longer or it become shorter and broadens. As a result of
it, there is a change in resistance end-to-end.

The change in resistance normally has very small value, and to sense that
small change, strain gauge has a long thin metallic strip arrange in a zigzag
pattern on a non-conducting material called the carrier, as shown below, so that it
can enlarge the small amount of stress in the group of parallel lines and could be
measured with high accuracy. The gauge is literally glued onto the device by an
adhesive.
Strain gauge bridge circuit shows the measured stress by the degree of
discrepancy, and uses a voltmeter in the center of the bridge to provide an
accurate measurement of that imbalance:

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 In this circuit, R1 and R3 are the ratio arms equal to each other, and R2 is
the rheostat arm has a value equal to the strain gage resistance. When the gauge
is unstrained, the bridge is balanced, and voltmeter shows zero value. As there is
a change in resistance of strain gauge, the bridge gets unbalanced and producing
an indication at the voltmeter. The output voltage from the bridge can be amplified
further by a differential amplifier.

5.2. Principles and Purposes of Strain-Gauge-Based Pressure Transducers

Strain-gauge-based pressure transducers convert a pressure into a
measurable electrical signal. The ability of the strain gauges to change their
resistance value in response to the physical deformation of a material caused by
pressure is primarily due to piezoresistive effect. By wiring the strain gauges in a
Wheatstone bridge arrangement, these small changes in resistance can be
exploited to give rise to a precise electrical signal proportional to the applied
pressure.
When a closed container is subjected to the applied pressure, it is strained
where its dimension changes. Measurement of this strain with a secondary
transducer like a strain gauge as metallic conductor becomes a measure of the
applied pressure. If strain gauges are attached to the container subjected to the
applied pressure, the strain gauges also will change in dimension depending on
the expansion or contraction of the container. The change in dimension of the
strain gauge will make its resistance to change. This change in resistance of the
strain gauge becomes a measure of pressure applied to the container.

Electrical resistance of any conductor is proportional to the ratio of length

over cross-sectional area (R ∝ l/A), which means that tensile deformation will
increase electrical resistance by simultaneously increasing length and decreasing
cross-sectional area while compressive deformation (squishing) will decrease
electrical resistance by simultaneously decreasing length and increasing cross-
sectional area.

5.3. Parts and Construction of Pressure Transducers

The figure below shows the arrangement of strain gauges that are mounted
on a cantilever spring which is operated by a pair of opposing bellow elements.
The cantilever is properly chosen in dimension for compensation in the change in
the Young’s modulus due to temperature changes.

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 The figure below shows an arrangement if strain gauges on to a flat
diaphragm. Usually four gauges are mounted as shown and they are connected
in a bridge circuit as shown in the figure. Radial and tangential stresses are
developed in the diaphragm gauges complicating the measurement of true
pressure.

One or more strain gauge sensors made from a length of wire can be
attached to the surface of a diaphragm. Pressure on the diaphragm will stretch
the wires and change the resistance. The sensor elements can be bonded on to
the surface with adhesive or the conductor can be directly deposited on the
diaphragm by sputtering. The latter method removes potential problems with
adhesives failing at high temperatures and also makes it easier to construct small
devices. A metal wire sensor can also be made by wrapping a wire between posts
that are displaced by changing pressure. This construction can also work at higher
temperatures because no adhesive is needed to attach the wire to the posts.

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5.4. Functions, Operations and Measurement
If a strip of conductive metal is stretched, it will become skinnier and longer,
both changes resulting in an increase of electrical resistance end-to-end.
Conversely, if a strip of conductive metal is placed under compressive force
(without buckling), it will broaden and shorten. If these stresses are kept within the
elastic limit of the metal strip, the strip can be used as a measuring element for
physical force, the amount of applied force inferred from measuring its resistance.
The change in resistance in the sensor is usually measured using a
Wheatstone bridge circuit. This allows small changes in the resistance of the
sensor to be converted to an output voltage. Piezoresistive strain gauge
measurements are made using a Wheatstone bridge circuit
An excitation voltage needs to be provided to the bridge. When there is no
strain and all the resistors in the bridge are balanced then the output will be zero
volts. A change in pressure will cause a change in resistances in the bridge
resulting in a corresponding output voltage or current.

5.5. Applications of Strain Gauge Pressure Sensors

Strain gauges are fixed to the structural load-bearing components to
measure stresses along load paths for wing deflection or deformation in an
airplane. The strain gauges are wired into the Wheatstone Bridge circuits and, its
application areas include onboard signal conditioning units, excitation power
supplies, and the telemetry necessary to read in site measurements.
Instrumentation of bridges is done to verify design parameters, evaluate the
performance of new technologies used in the construction of bridges, to verify and
control the construction process and for subsequent performance monitoring.
Well-instrumented bridges can alert responsible authorities about approaching
failure so as to initiate preventive measures. Choosing proper sensor types,
technology, a measurement range and their location on the bridge is very
important to optimize costs and to extract full benefits of instrumentation. It
becomes necessary to monitor the bridges regularly for any kind of deformation
as it might lead to fatal accidents. Strain gauge technology is used in the real-time
monitoring of huge bridges, making the inspections precise.
Strain gauges have a long history in the safety of rails. It is used to measure
stress and strain on rails. Strain gauges measure axial tension or compression

16
 with no impact on the rails. In case of an emergency, the strain gauges can
generate a warning so maintenance can be done early to minimize the impact on
rail traffic.

5.6. Advantages and Disadvantages

Piezoresistive strain gauge pressure sensors have the advantage of being
robust. Their performance and calibration are also stable over time. One
disadvantage of these sensors is that they consume more power than some other
types of pressure sensor. This may mean they are not suitable for battery powered
or portable systems. Metal film sensing elements have the advantage of simple
construction and durability. They also have a higher maximum operating
temperature (up to about 200°C) than silicon strain gauges, which are limited to
below 100°C. Silicon strain gauges provide a much larger output signal, making
them well-suited to low-pressure applications, down to around 2 kPa. MEMS or
microelectromechanical pressure sensors can be made much smaller than metal
wire sensors and can be integrated with electronics for signal processing, which
can control for non-linearity and temperature dependence.
Strain gauge pressure sensors has no moving parts and it can measure
wide-range pressures from 7.5 kPa up to 1400 MPa. They are small in size but it
offers small inaccuracies of at most 0.1%. The simple construction means low
cost and durability. The sensors are robust with good resistance to shock,
vibration, and dynamic pressure changes. The output is linear with pressure and
the response time is typically below one millisecond. The main disadvantage is
that the sensor has to be powered. This makes them unsuitable for low power or
battery-operated systems. Scaling down the size reduces the resistance and
increases the power consumption. There are also limitations on scaling because
strain averaging reduces the sensitivity of the sensor. However, very small
sensors can be fabricated as MEMS devices. The sensor output is temperature
dependent. This can be a big disadvantage for applications such as tire pressure
measurement where there are large temperature changes over the operating
cycle.

6. Piezoresistive Transducers
6.1. Definition and Overview of Piezoresistive Effect
The piezoresistive effect also involves pressure or stress. However,
changes in resistance across the piezo material are the product, not a charge or
voltage. It is a change in electrical resistance of a semiconductor material due to
mechanical stress.
Probably the most basic piezoresistive devices are, obviously, piezo
resistors. Form factors include integrated resistor networks, potentiometers, and
accelerometers. Made from semiconductor materials, piezoresistive devices most
commonly are used in pressure measurement.
When pressure is applied to a piezo resistor, depending on the material, its
resistance increases. The most common components that rely on the
piezoelectric and piezoresistive effects include, but are not restricted to,
transducers and sensors.

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6.2. Overview of Piezoresistive Transducers
Transducers convert energy from one form to another. Stated earlier,
piezoelectric transducers work both ways. They can convert mechanical energy
such as pressure and vibration to electrical energy like voltage or current. They
also can operate in reverse, converting electrical energy into mechanical energy
such as sound or vibration.
Piezoresistive transducers convert mechanical energy into proportionate
levels of resistance. They do not convert any form of stimulus to a voltage or
current, nor are they reverse active like their piezoelectric cousins, meaning they
cannot convert resistance levels to some other form of energy. Both piezoelectric
and piezoresistive transducers come in a wide variety of shapes and packages.
Piezoresistive transducers tend to be somewhat larger due to their use of
semiconductor materials. However, depending on the application, many housings,
sizes, and shapes are available to accommodate compact or larger designs. Since
these resistive components only work one way, converting mechanical stimuli into
resistance, they find regular employment in pressure-measurement applications.

6.3. Parts and Construction of Piezoresistive Transducers

6.3.1. Piezoresistive Sensor
A piezoresistive sensor is an electromechanical system: it contains
electrical and mechanical subsystems that respond to a mechanical input
(force, pressure, or acceleration) to produce an electrical output (a voltage
signal proportional to the mechanical input).

6.3.2. Wheatstone Bridge

The electrical resistance of the piezoresistor is usually not sensed directly.
Rather, the resistors are wired together in an electrical circuit configuration
called a Wheatstone bridge. The bridge has a constant input voltage and
produces a measurable output voltage that is proportional to the electrical
resistance.

6.3.3. Sensor Housing

The sensor housing is stainless steel, about 80 mm long, with a pressure
fitting at one end and an electrical connection for input and output voltage at

18
 the other end. Sensors of this type can typically be ordered to measure
pressure ranges from 0–6.9 kPa (1 psi) to 0–34.5 MPa (5000 psi). The DC
excitation voltage is usually between 5–10 V. When selecting a particular
sensor make and model, one usually has a choice of electrical output signals:
0–100 mV, 0–5 V or 4–20 mA.

6.3.4. Overall Components of a Piezoresistive Sensor

6.4. System Inputs and Outputs for Piezoresistive Transducer

If the transducer mechanical input is zero, then the mechanical structure

sees zero strain, resulting in the resistors also experiencing zero strain. The bridge
output voltage is therefore zero and the bridge is said to be balanced. When the
transducer does have an applied input, however, then the mechanical structure

19
 and the resistors undergo strain, changing the electrical resistance of the
piezoresistors. This in turn changes the currents in the bridge circuit such that the
bridge now produces an output voltage. This bridge output voltage is proportional
to the magnitude of the mechanical input. The primary physical phenomenon that
makes this possible is piezoresistance: the material property that the electrical
resistance of the material changes when the material is subjected to mechanical
deformation or strain.

6.5. Applications of Piezoresistive Transducers

1. Measuring the level of water in a tank
2. Isolating a water pipe leak
3. Identifying a gas leak
4. Monitoring gas pressure
5. Maintaining pressure in food and beverage lines

6.6. Advantages of Piezoresistive Transducers

• Transform vibrations and pressure into correlative rates of resistance
• Installation costs of measurement systems dedicated to piezoresistive
pressure transducers are generally lower than systems designed for
piezoelectric pressure transducers
• Have the ability to operate reliably in harsh environments

6.7. Disadvantages of Piezoresistive Transducers

• Can generate electrical currents and volts from mechanical energy but
not the other way around
• Its material design is sophisticated, therefore it can be costly

7. Piezoelectric Transducers
7.1. What are Piezoelectric Transducers?
A device that uses the piezoelectric effect to measure changes in
acceleration, pressure, strain, temperature or force by converting this energy into
an electrical charge is called piezoelectric transducers. The word "piezoelectric"
literally means electricity caused by pressure.

7.2. Transducer Parts & Functions

While many materials can show the piezoelectric effect, the best ones must
also possess at least a few of the most desirable qualities. Such characteristics
include consistent stability, high output, malleability and resistance to extreme
temperatures and humidity. That said, no known material exhibits all of those
qualities simultaneously.
Originally, crystals made from quartz took hold as the primary material for
piezoelectric crystal transducers. Quartz offers superior stability and slow
measuring at varying parameters due to low leakage rates, which means it can
provide excellent accuracy — hence why watches most often use them. While
they're still in widespread use, quartz also yields a rather low output, meaning it
can't keep up adequately with demands of more sophisticated technology.

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 In the early 1950s, quartz crystals began to give way to piezoelectric
ceramic as the primary transducer material. The advantages offered by a ceramic
transducer when compared to other materials include ceramic’s ability to be
manufactured in a wide variety of shapes and sizes, its capability of operating
efficiently at low voltage, and its ability to function at temperatures up to 300
degrees Celsius.

7.3. How Does Piezoelectric Transducers Measure Pressure?

When a force is applied to a piezoelectric material, an electric charge is
generated across the faces of the crystal. This can be measured as a voltage
proportional to the pressure (see diagram to the right). There is also an inverse
piezoelectric effect where applying a voltage to the material will cause it to change
shape. A given static force results in a corresponding charge across the sensor.
However, this will leak away over time due to imperfect insulation, the internal
sensor resistance, the attached electronics, etc.

As a result, piezoelectric sensors are not normally suitable for measuring

static pressure. The output signal will gradually drop to zero, even in the presence
of constant pressure. They are, however, sensitive to dynamic changes in
pressure across a wide range of frequencies and pressures.
This dynamic sensitivity means they are good at measuring small changes
in pressure, even in a very high-pressure environment.

7.4. Piezoelectric Transducer Applications

1. As piezoelectric materials cannot measure static values these are
primarily used for measuring surface roughness, in accelerometers and
as a vibration pickup.
2. They are used in seismographs to measure vibrations in rockets.
3. In strain gauges to measure force, stress, vibrations etc…
4. Used by automotive industries to measure detonations in engines.
5. These are used in ultrasonic imaging in medical applications.

7.5. Advantages of Piezoelectric Transducers

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 • High Frequency Response – They offer high frequency response that
means the parameter changing at very high speed can be sent easily
without any delay of time.
• High Transient Response – It means that it can detect the events in
microseconds and also give the linear output.
• Ruggedness – Piezoelectric transducers are small in size and have
rugged construction.

7.6. Disadvantages of Piezoelectric Transducers

• Output is low – Since it is low, external electric circuit has to be
connected.
• High Impedance - It needed to be connected on an amplifier and an
auxiliary which has can cause potential error in measurements.
• Design

8. Optical Fiber Pressure Sensors

8.1. Overview on Optical Fiber Pressure Sensors
Optical pressure sensors detect a change in pressure through an effect on
light. In the simplest case this can be a mechanical system that blocks the light as
the pressure increases. In more advanced sensors, the measurement of phase
difference allows very accurate measurement of small pressure changes.
Optical fiber sensor is a sensor that measures a physical quantity based on
its modulation on the intensity, spectrum, phase, or polarization of light traveling
through an optical fiber.
They are still not well known, but below are some milestones of fiber optics
evolution:
• It was invented by the Indian physicist Narinder Singh Kanpany.
• 1970: Corning Glass produced a few optical fiber meters with losses
of 20 db/km.
• 1973: An optical fiber circuit was installed in the United States.
• 1976: Bell Laboratories installed a telephone link of 1 km in Atlanta,
GA, and proved to be practically feasible its use for telephone
communication.
• 1978: The production of optical fibers began in several world
locations with losses below 1,5 dB/km.
• 1988: The first optical fiber submarine cable immersed in the ocean
and gave birth to the information super highway.
• 2004: Optical fibers account for 40 billion dollars annually.
• 2007: Brazilian optical fiber turned 30 years and the all-American
optical fiber market billed 237 million dollars.
• 2014: The American market of optical fiber sensors has an estimate
of 237 million-dollar billings.
The sensitivity of fiber sensors, namely, the less intense measurable
disturbance, may depend on Infinitesimal variations on some parameter of
characterizing the used fiber, when the fiber is the very sensor element;

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8.2. Working Principle of Optical Fiber Pressure Sensors
There are three main components that comprise a standard optical fiber:
the core that holds the light; the cladding that surrounds the core with a lower
refractive index and contains the light; and the coating that protects the fragile
fiber inside.

Different characteristics or properties of the transmitted light may be

transformed in the fiber optic sensor to bring information about the measured
component. Depending on the properties of the light signal being modulated, fiber
optic sensor designs can be divided into four main categories. These include
sensors modulated by intensity, spectrum, phase, and time and frequency.
1. Intensity-modulated sensor. In intensity-type sensors, the light emitted
from an optical source is carried along a fiber, its intensity is modified at
the transducer and the light is returned to an optical detector. These
sensors are analog in nature, as the light intensity detected is
proportional to the measured variable. Intensity-modulated sensors can
be classified as using one of three general modulation mechanisms:
transmission, reflection, and microbending.
2. Phase-modulated sensor. Phase modulated sensors use interferometric
methods to sense the measured variable. Interferometry is the use of
interference phenomena, based on the wave properties of light, to
perform measurements. In phase-modulated sensors, changes in the
measurand result in a phase difference between the modulated light and
a reference light beam.
3. Phase-modulated sensors use interferometric methods to sense the
measured variable. In phase-modulated sensors, changes in the
measurand result in a phase difference between the modulated light and
a reference light beam. Since the phase-modulated fiber optic sensors
use interferometric measurement techniques, they are also referred to
as interferometers.
4. Time and Frequency-modulated sensor. Sensors which fall into this
category either use a frequency signal generated by a quartz crystal
resonator or a fluorescent decay rate to transmit the measured pressure.

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 Fiber optic sensors test their environmental characteristics. They can
calculate anything that changes the way light passes through the fiber, or changes
the properties of light. Fiber optic sensors usually relay light through an optical
fiber to a sensor from a light source, which only senses the change of a desired
environmental parameter. The sensor modulates the light 's characteristics
(intensity, length of wave, amplitude, phase). The modulated light is transmitted
from the sensor to the signal processor and converted into a signal that is
processed in the control system. The properties of light involved in fiber optic
censors: reflection, refraction, and interference.

Illustration of the basic Components of a Fiber Optic Sensing System

In an optical pressure sensor based on intensity, an increase in pressure
will cause the light source to be gradually blocked. Then the sensor tests the shift
in light that is obtained. For instance, the pressure moves a diaphragm in the
simple mechanism shown and the attached opaque vane blocks more of the light
from the LED. The light intensity decrease is measured by the photodiode and
gives a direct pressure measurement.

A simple optical pressure sensor like this requires a reference photodiode

that is never blocked by the vane (as seen below). This helps the sensor to adjust
for changes in the output of light due to other causes, such as light source ageing,
supply voltage variations, etc.

24
 Such mechanical systems are comparatively large. With a reflective
membrane and two optical fibers, much smaller models can be made, one as a
source of light and the other to receive the reflected light. The membrane is bent
by pressure and the amount of light reflected back to the detector varies.
Interferometry is used by other fiber-optic sensors to measure changes in
the path length and phase of light caused by pressure changes.

8.3. Functions of Optical Fiber Pressure Sensors

Fiber optic pressure sensors may be categorized as either extrinsic, where
the fiber carries light from the source to the detector, but modulation occurs
beyond the fiber, or intrinsic, where, in response to pressure, the fiber itself
changes. By exploiting interferometry, very sensitive optical measurements can
be made. This can detect distance changes corresponding to a fraction of the
wavelength of light. There are two common types of pressure sensor that use
interferometry. These are the Fabry-Pérot interferometer (FPI) and fiber Bragg
grating (FBG).
8.3.1. The FPI is an extrinsic sensor that uses interference from two surfaces in a
cavity between multiple light rays reflected back and forth. As the spacing
between them alters, the amount of light emitted at a given wavelength can
be affected by interference. This is one of the best technologies for optical
sensors. For various sizes and pressure ranges, it is easy, accurate and easily
scalable.

8.3.2. An FBG is an intrinsic sensor that has a regular series of reflective

structures in the fiber that are affected by stretching or squashing the fiber.
This causes the wavelengths of the reflected light to change.

8.4. Construction of Optical Fiber Pressure Sensors

A Fabry-Pérot cavity with two parallel reflecting surfaces can be constructed
on the tip of an optical fiber (as shown below).

25
 A semi-reflecting surface is attached to the fiber (M1) and a reflective
membrane is created at the opposite end of the cavity (M2). This membrane forms
a diaphragm that is moved by pressure.
The change in spacing between the mirrors causes a difference in the path
travelled by each ray of light (E1 and E2) and hence a relative phase shift between
them. The resulting interference will reinforce or reduce particular wavelengths of
light. The multiple reflections and the large number of interfering rays result in a
very high-resolution measurement.
A Bragg grating can be created within a fiber using a series of periodic
changes in the refractive index of the fiber. This causes particular wavelengths of
light to be reflected or transmitted, based on the ratio between the wavelength
and the spacing. As a result, the spectrum of the reflected light changes as the
fiber, and the spacing, is stretched. The fiber can be attached to a diaphragm that
stretches the fiber when pressure is applied. Compressing the fiber also changes
the effects of the grating, creating two peaks in the spectrum.

It is possible to calculate the output from any kind of sensor in two ways. If
a monochromatic or narrow-band source is used, the amplitude of the output
signal will change as the cavity length (or grating spacing) changes how much of
that wavelength is reflected.
It is also possible to use a broad-band light source, such as white light. The
frequencies at which positive or destructive interference takes place will change
with pressure in this situation. These structures, in particular Fabry-Pérot cavities,
are also suitable for silicon fabrication techniques allowing even smaller optical
sensors to be made as micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS) devices.
On the micrometer scale, waveguides (equivalent to optical fibres) and
mechanical components such as cantilevers and membranes can be designed.
Due to their small size, these sensors can respond very rapidly to pressure

26
 changes. It is possible to integrate light-emitting diodes, solid state lasers,
photodiode detectors and electronics into the same device.

8.5. Applications of Optical Fiber Pressure Sensors

Fiber-optic sensors are very useful due to their independence from
electromagnetic interference, since they are designed to provide precise pressure
measurements in harsh environments and for laboratory applications. Physical
parameters including strain, temperature, pressure, velocity, and acceleration can
be measured.
One example is the oil and gas industry. Conditions in a well can easily
reach 20 kpsi and 185ºC. Optical sensors continue to perform well under these
extremes. Their small size, flexibility, the absence of any potentially hazardous
voltages, and the fact that the sensors are made of non-toxic materials makes
them very well suited to medical applications. There are many places in the body
where measuring pressure can be important for diagnosis, long-term monitoring
or during treatment.
As well as more obvious measurements such as pressure in blood vessels
and the lungs, it is often useful to measure pressure in the digestive tract, bladder,
brain, bones and joints. Fiber-optic sensors allow this to be done in a minimally
invasive way.

8.6. Advantages and Disadvantages of Optical Fiber Pressure Sensors

Optical fiber sensors are lightweight and have a sensitivity comparable to
traditional detectors that are similar. Using a moving membrane on one of the fiber
ends, pressure sensors are constructed.
The advantages of these sensors are:
• Electromagnetic and radio frequency immunity
• Eliminates shock hazards, signal isolation, electrical hazard
• Chemically inert, intrinsically safe
• Ideal to operate
• High Resolution and Dynamic Range
• Small and lightweight
• Flexibility and resistance
• High sensitivity
• Can withstand harsh environment
• Multiplexing capability, i.e., a single fiber can have dozens of sensors to
measure vibration, pressure, temperature, multiphase flow, deformation,
etc.
The disadvantages of these sensors are:
• Fragility of sensing element and fiber optic cable
• Poor compatibility
• Increased attenuation
• Complex and Expensive
• Poor performance in static pressure (in some cases)

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