Group 4

Loss in pipe and fitting system

Abstract:
The equipment was studied and its working was observed. Three sections; venturimeter, orifice
meter and pitot tube were studied and observed in detail. Then for these three assigned sections
pressure difference was noted at different flow rates and then further calculations ere made to
obtain the results.

Equipment briefing:
Pressure losses occur during the flow of real fluids due to friction and turbulence (vortices).
Pressure losses in pipes, piping elements, fittings and measuring instruments (e.g. flow meter,
velocity meter) cause pressure losses and must therefore be taken into account when designing
piping systems.
HM 150.11 allows to study the pressure losses in pipes, piping elements and shut-off devices.
In addition, the differential pressure method is presented for measuring the flow rate.
The experimental unit contains six different pipe sections capable of being shut off individually.
The pipe sections are equipped with piping elements such as bends, elbows and branches. In one
pipe section, different shut-off devices and measuring objects are installed to determine the flow
rate. The measuring objects are made of transparent material and provide excellent insight into the
inner structure. The pressure measuring points in the piping system are designed as annular
chambers. This creates a largely interference-free pressure measurement.
The experiments measure the pressure losses in pipes and piping elements, such as branches
and bends. The opening characteristic of the shut-off devices are also recorded. The pressures are
measured with twin tube manometers.
The experimental unit is positioned easily and securely on the work surface of the HM 150 base
module. The water is supplied and the flow rate measured by HM 150. Alternatively, the
experimental unit can be operated by the laboratory supply.

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Details of assigned sections of apparatus:

Venturi meter:
A venturi meter is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of a fluid flowing through a pipe.
Main parts of Venturi meter:
The main parts of a venture meter are:

1. A short converging part: It is that portion of the venturi where the fluid gets converges.

2. Throat: It is the portion that lies in between the converging and diverging part of the venturi.
The cross section of the throat is much less than the cross section of the converging and diverging
parts. As the fluid enters in the throat, its velocity increases and pressure decreases.
1. Diverging part: It is the portion of the venturimeter (venturi) where the fluid gets diverges.

Principle of Venturi meter:

The working of venture meter is based on the principle of Bernoulli’s equation.

Bernoulli’s Statement: It states that in a steady, ideal flow of an incompressible fluid, the total
energy at any point of the fluid is constant. The total energy consists of pressure energy, kinetic
energy and potential energy or datum energy.

Mathematically

Here all the energies are taken per unit weight of the fluid.
The Bernoulli’s equation for the fluid passing through the section 1 and 2 are given by

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Construction:
The construction of venturi meter is shown below:
It has three main parts:

1. Short converging part: It is a tapered portion whose radius decreases as we move forward.
2. Throat: It is middle portion of the venturi. Here the velocity of the fluid increases and pressure
decreases. It possesses the least cross section area.
3. Diverging part: In this portion the fluid diverges.
Working:

The venturi meter is used to measure the rate of flow of a fluid flowing through the pipes. Lets
understand how it does this measurement step by step.
 Here we have considered two cross section, first at the inlet and the second one is at the throat.
The difference in the pressure heads of these two sections is used to calculate the rate of flow
through venturi meter.
 As the water enters at the inlet section i.e. in the converging part it converges and reaches to the
throat.
 The throat has the uniform cross section area and least cross section area in the venturimeter. As
the water enters in the throat its velocity gets increases and due to increase in the velocity the
pressure drops to the minimum.
 Now there is a pressure difference of the fluid at the two sections. At the section 1(i.e. at the inlet)
the pressure of the fluid is maximum and the velocity is minimum. And at the section 2 (at the
throat) the velocity of the fluid is maximum and the pressure is minimum.
 The pressure difference at the two section can be seen in the manometer attached at both the
section.
 This pressure difference is used to calculate the rate flow of a fluid flowing through a pipe.
Also Read:
Centrifugal Pump – Working Principle, Main Parts with Application
Positive Displacement Pump – Definition, Types, Working

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What is Cavitation and How it Occurs?

Expression for the rate of flow through Venturi meter:

Considered a venturi meter is fitted to a horizontal pipe through which fluid (water) is flowing as
shown in the figure given below.

Let d1, p1, v1 & a1, are the diameter at the inlet, pressure at the inlet, velocity at the inlet and area
at the cross section 1.
And d2, p2, v2 and a2 are the corresponding values at section 2.
Applying Bernoulli’s equation at sections 1 and 2

As the pipe is horizontal, so z1 = z2

Therefore

(P1 – P2)/ρg is the difference of pressure heads at section 1 and 2 and it is equal to h. so

Substituting this value of h in equation (1), we get

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Now applying continuity equation at section 1 and 2

Substituting this value of 𝑣1 in equation (2) and solving, we get

Discharge

Substituting value of 𝑣2 in above equation

Q is the theoretical discharge under ideal conditions. Actual discharge will be less than the
theoretical discharge. The actual discharge is given by the formula

Where Cd is the coefficient of venturi meter and its value is less than 1.

Orifice meter:

 October 3, 2015 - 6:23 pm

 Flow
 5 Comments
 By Site Administrator+
 Introduction

An Orifice Meter is basically a type of flow meter used to measure the rate of flow of Liquid or
Gas, especially Steam, using the Differential Pressure Measurement principle. It is mainly used
for robust applications as it is known for its durability and is very economical.

As the name implies, it consists of an Orifice Plate which is the basic element of the instrument.
When this Orifice Plate is placed in a line, a differential pressure is developed across the Orifice
Plate. This pressure drop is linear and is in direct proportion to the flow-rate of the liquid or gas.

Since there is a drop in pressure, just like Turbine Flow meter, hence it is used where a drop in
pressure or head loss is permissible.

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Principle:

When a liquid / gas, whose flow-rate is to be determined, is passed through an Orifice Meter, there
is a drop in the pressure between the Inlet section and Outlet Section of Orifice Meter. This drop
in pressure can be measured using a differential pressure measuring instrument.

Since this differential pressure is in direct proportion to the flow-rate as per the Bernoulli's
Equation hence the differential pressure instrument can be configured to display flow-rate instead
of showing differential pressure.

The working principle of Orifice Meter is the same, as that of Venturi meter.

Construction:

Inlet Section

A linearly extending section of the same diameter as the inlet pipe for an end connection for an
incoming flow connection. Here we measure the inlet pressure of the fluid / steam / gas.

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Orifice Plate

An Orifice Plate is inserted in between the Inlet and Outlet Sections to create a pressure drop and
thus measure the flow.

Outlet Section

A linearly extending section similar to the Inlet section. Here also the diameter is the same as that
of the outlet pipe for an end connection for an outgoing flow. Here we measure the Pressure of the
media at this discharge.

As shown in the adjacent diagram, a gasket is used to seal the space between the Orifice Plate and
the Flange surface, prevent leakage.

<< Click on image to enlarge

Sections 1 & 2 of the Orifice meter, are provided with an opening for attaching a differential
pressure sensor (u-tube manometer, differential pressure indicator).

Material of construction:

The Orifice plates in the Orifice meter, in general, are made up of stainless steel of varying grades.

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Shape & Size of Orifice meter:

Orifice meters are built in different forms depending upon the application specific requirement,
The shape, size and location of holes on the Orifice Plate describes the Orifice Meter Specifications
as per the following:

 Concentric Orifice Plate

 Eccentric Orifice Plate
 Segment Orifice Plate
 Quadrant Edge Orifice Plate

Concentric Orifice Plate

It is made up of SS and its thickness varies from 3.175 to 12.70 mm. The plate thickness at the
orifice edge should not be exceeded by any of following parameters:

 1 - D/50 where, D = The pipe inside diameter

 2 - d/8 where, d = orifice bore diameter
 3 - (D-d)/8

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*Beta Ratio(β): It is the ratio of orifice bore diameter (d) to the pipe inside diameter (D).

Eccentric Orifice Plate

It is similar to Concentric Orifice plate other than the offset hole which is bored tangential to a
circle, concentric with the pipe and of a diameter equal to 98% of that of the pipe. It is generally
employed for measuring fluids containing

 Media having Solid particles

 Oils containing water
 Wet steam

Segment Orifice Plate

It has a hole which is a semi circle or a segment of circle. The diameter is customarily 98% of the
diameter of the pipe.

Quadrant Edge Orifice Plate

This type of orifice plate is used for flow such as crude oil, high viscosity syrups or slurries etc. It
is conceivably used when the line Reynolds Numbers* range from 100,000 or above or in between
to 3,000 to 5,000 with a accuracy coefficient of roughly 0.5%.

Operation of Orifice meter:

 The fluid flows inside the Inlet section of the Orifice meter having a pressure P1.
 As the fluid proceeds further into the Converging section, its pressure reduces gradually and it
finally reaches a value of P2 at the end of the Converging section and enter the Cylindrical section.
 The differential pressure sensor connected between the Inlet and the and the Cylindrical Throat
section of the Orifice meter displays the difference in pressure (P1-P2). This difference in pressure
is in direct proportion to the flow rate of the liquid flowing through the Orifice meter.
 Further the fluid passed through the Diverging recovery cone section and the velocity reduces
thereby it regains its pressures. Designing a lesser angle of the Diverging recovery section, helps
more in regaining the kinetic energy of the liquid.

Specifications of Orifice meter:

 Line Size: 6 mm to 800 mm

 Accuracy: +/-0.5% to +/-3.0%.
 Operating Temperature (Max.): Upto 800 degC
 Operating Pressure (Max.): Upto 400 bar

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Applications of Orifice meter:

 Natural Gas
 Water Treatment Plants
 Oil Filtration Plants
 Petrochemicals and Refineries

Advantages of Orifice meter:

 The Orifice meter is very cheap as compared to other types of flow meters.
 Less space is required to Install and hence ideal for space constrained applications
 Operational response can be designed with perfection.
 Installation direction possibilities: Vertical / Horizontal / Inclined.

Limitations of Orifice meter:

 Easily gets clogged due to impurities in gas or in unclear liquids

 The minimum pressure that can be achieved for reading the flow is sometimes difficult to achieve
due to limitations in the vena-contracta length for an Orifice Plate.
 Unlike Venturi meter, downstream pressure cannot be recovered in Orifice Meters. Overall head
loss is around 40% to 90% of the differential pressure .
 Flow straighteners are required at the inlet and the outlet to attain streamline flow thereby
increasing the cost and space for installation.
 Orifice Plate can get easily corroded with time thereby entails an error.
 Discharge Co-efficient obtained is low.

Pitot tube:

Pitot tube is a device used to measure the fluid flow measurement invented by Henri Pitot, a French
engineer in 18th century.It is widely to measure the airspeed of aircrafts, speedboat speed and for
fluid flow measurement in industrial application. Pitot tube measures the pressure point in contact.

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Principle:

The pitot tube is a differential pressure measuring device.

The pitot tube installed in the flow stream measures the direct pressure at the contact pitot tube
hole and a second measurement is required, being of static pressure. The difference between the
two measurements gives a value for dynamic pressure. The flow rate, like other devices, is
calculated from the square root extractor of the pressure.

In a pitot-static tube, the flow Q is given by:

Q = K√(pS − pi)

where K is a constant, pS is the static pressure, and pI is the impact pressure.

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Construction and Working:

The pitot meter consists of a tube pointing directly toward the flow. The fluid enters through the
impact hole and there can one or two other holes in the pitot tube, which are the static pressure
source.

For a simple pitot tube (shown in fig:1) we should arrange one another pressure sensing element
to measure the static pressure. The axis of tube measuring the static pressure should be
perpendicular to the boundary and free from burrs so that the boundary is smooth.

The pitot-static tube that having the static pressure inlet is shown below.

A pitot tube is a simple round cylinder with one end opened with a small hole and other end
enclosed. The fluid flowing through the pipeline enters the pitot tube and rest there. There is
another chamber within the pitot tube filled with fluid with static pressure. A diaphragm separates
both the chambers.

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The differential pressure is measured between both the pressures gives the dynamic pressure. The
difference in level between the liquid in the tube and the free surface becomes the measure of
dynamic pressure. The flow rate, like other devices, is calculated from the square root of the
pressure.

In calculating the flow rate from the pressure, the calculation is dependent on such factors as tube
design and the location of the static tap. The Pitot-static probe incorporates the static holes in the
tube system to eliminate this parameter.Measuring the static pressure and the impact pressure are
connected to the proper differential pressure meter for the determination of flow velocity and thus
the flow rate.

Advantages:

 Small and do not contain any moving parts

 Low cost
 Low permanent pressure loss.
 Ease of installation into an existing system.

Disadvantages:

 Foreign material in a fluid can easily clog pitot tube and disrupt normal reading as a result.
 Low accuracy.
 Low rangeability.

Procedure:
 Flow rate was determined by noting the time for 50 literss of water to fill with the help of
gauge fitted within the hydraulic bench.
 Then a flow rate was adjusted from the valve from the hydraulic bench.
 Then the pressure difference was noted from the pressure gauge and the manometer for
venturimeter, orifice meter and pitot tube.
 Then the same procedure was repeated for different flowrates.

Calculations and results:

2. Calculate the jet contraction coefficient of sharp edges for orifice and also loss coefficient
of entrance and discharge of the orifice.

Jet contraction coefficient Cc = Area of jet at vena contracta / Area of orifice

= 2 / 3.11
= 0.64

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For Loss coefficient of entrance

HL = Ke x V2 / 2g
Ke = HL x 2g / V2
HL = Head Loss
V = velocity in the barrel
Ke = 0.5
Loss coefficient of discharge of the orifice Cd = Qexperimental / Qtheoretical
= 40 / 67
Cd = 0.60

3.Graphs:

For orifice:

c 1.1 (m/s)

For venturi:

Scale:
X-axis: head loss (10-3 m)
Y-axis: velocity 0.01 (m/s)

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For pitot tube:

Scale:
X-axis: head loss (10-3 m)
Y-axis: velocity 0.002(m/s)

4.
 The differential manometer gives the difference in piezoelectric head. Since the pupe has
a constant diameter, the velocity head is the same at the two piezometer locations.So the
difference in piezometric head is also the difference in total head.
 In general the pressure loss due to flow is the same whether the pipe is horizontal, vertical
or inclined. The change in pressure due to the difference in head myst be considered in the
pressure drop calculation.
 In fluid dynamics the dacry weisbach equation is an empirical equation, which relates the
head loss or pressure loss, due to friction along a given length of pipe to the average
velocity of fluid flow for an in compressible fluid.
 In laminar flow losses are proportional to the fluid velocity, that velocity varies smoothly
between the bulk of the fluid and the pipe surface, where it is zero.
 Venturimeter can handle 25 to 50 % flow rates than an orifice. Energy losses are less in a
venturimeter than an orifice meter. Venturimeter has a high coefficient of discharge.
 The main difference is that the orifice measures the full floe stream. While the pitot tube
detects the floe velocity.
5. Plot the graph of head losses via manometer, pressure gauge and by pipe friction
equation against flow rates.

Flow rate 1 = V x 10-3/T = 6.410 x 10-4 m3/s
Flow rate 2 = V x 10-3 /T = 6.32 x 10-4 m3/s
Flow rate 3 = V x 10-3/T = 6.02 x 10-4 m3/s

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Head Loss = 4fLu2 / 2gd

H1 = 7.14 m
H2 = 1.55 x 10-3 m
H3 = 3.48 x 10-3 m

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Head Loss

0
0.0006 0.000605 0.00061 0.000615 0.00062 0.000625 0.00063 0.000635 0.00064 0.000645
Flow Rate

Q1 = 0.00651 H1 = 0.000651
Q2 = 0.00662 H2 = 0.000662
Q3 = 0.0073 H3 = 8.82

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9
8
7
Head Loss

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5
4
3
2
1
0
0.00064 0.00065 0.00066 0.00067 0.00068 0.00069 0.0007 0.00071 0.00072 0.00073 0.00074
Flow Rate

Q1 = 0.000322 H1 = 9.55
Q2 = 0.000445 H2 = 0.0032
Q3 = 0.0078 H3 = 0.0056

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Head Loss

0
0 0.001 0.002 0.003 Flow Rate
0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008 0.009

Reference:
HM 150.11 Losses in a pipe system.

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