Title

UNIT – IV
TRANSPORTATION OF FLUIDS
Flow measurement –classification flow measuring devices – Principle
and working of Orifice meter, Venturi meter, Pitot tube and Rotameter.
Valves
 Flow Measurement
• Means measuring the rate of flow of a fluid flowing through a pipe or through an
open channel
• The rate of flow of a fluid through a pipe is measured by venturi meter, orifice meter,
pitot tube, etc.
• The rate of flow of a fluid through a open channel is measured by notches and weirs
Head—type flow measurement derives from Bernoulli’s theorem which states that in a
flowing stream, the sum of the pressure head, the velocity head and the elevation head at one
point is equal to their sum at another point in the direction of flow plus the loss due to friction
between the two points.
Variable Head meters (constant area meters): venturi meter, orifice meter and pitot tube
Variable Area meters (constant head meters) : Rotameter
For actual flow conditions with frictional losses present, a correction to this formula is necessary.
Discharge coefficient, Cd is defined as the ratio between actual volumetric flow
rate and ideal volumetric flow rate
 VENTURIMETER
Venturi tubes are differential pressure producers, based on Bernoulli’s Theorem. there
is a continuous contact between the fluid flow and the surface of the primary device.

The pipe cross-sectional area is reduced to create a pressure difference which is measured with a
manometer to determine the rate of fluid flow. So, the venturi meter is a differential head type
flowmeter that converts pressure energy into kinetic energy. 

Materials for Venturimeter

Small-size venturimeter are made of brass, glass, or bronze and large venturimeters are
made of cast iron, steel, or stainless steel.
A venturimeter consists of four parts:
1.Cylindrical Inlet Section
2.Conical convergent Section
3.Cylindrical throat and
4.Conical divergent outlet

There are two tapping on the venturi meter for pressure measurement; the upstream pressure
tapping is located at a distance of one-half of pipe diameter (D/2) upstream of the convergent
entry, while the downstream pressure tapping is located in the throat (d/2) 

•Cylindrical Entrance Section: Venturimeter entrance is a straight cylindrical section with a length equal to 5 to 8
times the pipe diameter.
•Convergence Conical Section: In this section, the venturi meter tube diameter gradually decreases. While the liquid
flows inside the venturimeter, the velocity of fluid increases at the expense of a decrease in pressure.
•Cylindrical Throat: Throat consists of the minimum venturimeter diameter. In the throat section, the velocity is
maximum and pressure is minimum. Normally, throat diameter = 1/3 to 1/4th of inlet pipe diameter.
•Diverging Conical section: At this section of venturimeter, the tube diameter gradually increases. So, the pressure is
build up again to the original inlet pressure.

Working principle of Venturimeter
When a fluid flows through a venturimeter, it
accelerates in the convergent section and then venturimeter has the highest kinetic energy and
decelerates in the divergent section. The
pressure difference between an upstream section
and the throat is measured by a manometer.
Using that differential pressure, applying
Bernoulli’s Equation and Contininuity
Equitation the volumetric flow rate can be
estimated.
Types of Venturimeters
Normally three types of venturimeters are
available:
•Horizontal Venturimeter: This type of
the lowest potential energy.
•Vertical Venturimeter: This type has the
maximum potential energy and the minimum
kinetic energy.
•Inclined Venturimeter: Both potential and
kinetic energy are in between the above two
types mentioned.
 (p1-p2)/ρg = (v22-v12)/2g
h=(v22-v12)/2g eqn. 1
Now applying continuity equations between the same sections 1
and 2
v1=(A2v2)/A1
Putting this value of v1 in eqn. 1
 So, the rate of flow through the throat (Q) can be
calculated as Q=A2V2; Substituting the above
value of v2 we get,

This Q represents the theoretical discharge of Venturi Meter

in ideal condition. But in actual practice, there will always be
some frictional loss. Hence, the actual discharge will always
be less than the theoretical discharge. So, to calculate the
actual discharge, the above Q value is multiplied by Cv,
called the Coefficient of discharge of venturimeter. So the
actual flow rate through the throat of the venturimeter will be
given by the following equation.

As Qactual will always be less than Qtheoretical due to frictional losses, the value of C d is always less
than 1.0. The typical range of the discharge coefficient of a Venturi meter is 0.95-0.99 but this can
be increased by proper machining of the convergent section. The value of venturimeter discharge
coefficient differs from one flowmeter to the other depending on the venturimeter geometry and
the Reynolds number.
 Limitations
This flow meter is limited to use on clean, non-corrosive liquids and gases, because it is
impossible to clean out or flush out the pressure taps if they clog up with dirt or debris.

• Advantages:
• Low pressure loss and hence high pressure recovery This device is widely used in the
• High accuracy; wide flow ranges water, chemical,
• High reproducibility pharmaceutical, and oil & gas
• Used for both compressible and incompressible fluids industries to measure the flow
• Very less chance of being clogged rates of fluids inside a pipe.
• Disadvantages:
• Expensive & bulky
• Occupies space and complex in construction
• Unsuitable for highly viscous fluid
• Ratio of throat diameter to pipe diameter cannot be changed
Applications of Venturimeter
Venturimeters find wide application in fluid industries. The major application of venturimeters include
•Used in Engine Carburetors (Automobile Sector) to measure airflow
•Used in process industries (Process and Power Piping Industries) to measure and control process flow.
•In the medical industry, blood flow in the arteries is measured by venturimeters.
•Measures the fluid flow inside pipelines (Oil & Gas Industries)
 ORIFICE METER
An Orifice flow meter is the most common head type flow measuring device.
An orifice meter is a device with a hole in it, which measures how
fast a fluid is flowing, by recording the pressure decrease across the
hole. The two most important factors that influence the reading of an
orifice meter are the size of the orifice and the diameter of the pipe
which it is fitted into.

• It is a cheaper device as compared to venturimeter

• It consists of a flat plate which has a circular sharp edged hole called orifice, which is concentric with the
pipe
• The orifice diameter is kept generally 0.5 times less the diameter of the pipe (may vary from 0.4 to 0.8)
Principle of Operation
The orifice plate inserted in the pipeline causes an increase in flow velocity and a
corresponding decrease in pressure. The flow pattern shows an effective decrease in cross
section beyond the orifice plate, with a maximum velocity and minimum pressure at the
venacontracta. There is a slight fall in pressure in the approach section and the static
pressure is at a minimum about one pipe diameter before the orifice plate. The pressure of
the fluid then rises near the face of the orifice. There is then a sudden fall of pressure as the
fluid passes through the orifice, but the minimum pressure is not attained until the
venacontracta is reached. Beyond the venacontracta, there is a rapid recovery in the static
pressure.
An orifice meter is a piece of equipment used to measure the flow rate of a gas or a fluid.
It mainly consists of an orifice plate, an orifice plate housing, and a meter tube.

Construction of an Orifice Meter

•Inlet Section – a linear segment extending from the device and acts as an end connection for
the fluid flowing inside.
•Outlet Section – also a linear segment similar to the inlet section where the pressure of the
gas or fluid discharged is determined.
•Orifice Plate – present between the outlet and inlet segments and used to generate a pressure
drop which enables the measurement of the flow rate.
•Flow Conditioner – installed in the inlet section of the meter tube and is used to enhance
linear flow in the inlet section of the meter tube.
Basic Working Principle of an Orifice Meter
It works on the Differential Pressure Measurement principle.

•The liquid or gas whose flow rate is to be determined is passed through the orifice
plate.
•This creates a pressure drop across the orifice plate which varies with the flow rate,
resulting in a differential pressure between the outlet and inlet segments.
•This pressure drop is measured and is used to calculate the flow rate of the fluid or
gas.
 The material chosen for orifice plate is of any rigid material of
non-rusting and noncorrodible. It is vital that the material should
not corrode in the fluid being metered. Otherwise the edge of the
orifice will get damaged to a sufficient extend to interfere with
the character of the flow and the accuracy of the measurement.
We should choose a material whose coefficient of Thermal
expansion is known. The common materials used are Stainless
steel, Monel, Phosphor bronze, Glass, Ceramics, Plastics, Brass,
Copper, Aluminium and Tantalum.
Types of Orifice Plates
The simplest form of orifice plate consists of a thin metal sheet, having in it a square
edged or a sharp edged or round edged circular hole.
There are three types of orifice plates namely
1. Concentric
2. Eccentric and
3. Segmental type.
The concentric type is used for clean fluids. In metering dirty fluids, slurries and fluids
containing solids, eccentric or segmental type is used in such a way that its lower edge coincides with the
inside bottom of the pipe. This allows the solids to flow through without any obstruction. The orifice
plate is inserted into the main pipeline between adjacent flanges, the outside diameters of the plate being
turned to fit within the flange bolts. The flanges are either screwed or welded to the pipes. The
differential pressure obtained with an orifice plate will also depend upon the position
of the pressure taps.
Applications of Orifice Meter
•It is used to measure the flow rate of fluids in their single state (i.e. gaseous state or liquid
state).
•It can also be used to measure the flow rate of fluids in a mixed state (both gaseous and
liquid states) such as, wet steam, or natural gas with water .
It is utilized in the following industries:
•Water treatment plants
•Natural gas industries
•Refineries
•Petrochemical plants
Advantages of an Orifice Meter

•It is cost-effective and quite easy to use.

•It occupies less space, making it ideal for space-constrained applications.
•It can also be used to determine flow rates in large pipes.
•It can be installed in the horizontal or vertical positions.
 Pitot Tube
An obstruction type primary element used mainly for fluid velocity measurement is
the Pitot tube.
Principle
Consider Fig. which shows flow around a solid body. When a solid body is held
centrally and stationary in a pipeline with a fluid streaming down, due to the
presence of the body, the fluid while approaching the object starts losing its
velocity till directly in front of the body, where the velocity is zero. This point is
known as the stagnation point. As the kinetic head is lost by the fluid, it gains a
static head. By measuring the difference of pressure between that at normal flow
line and that at the stagnation point, the velocity is found out. This principle is used
in pitot tube sensors.
The simplest pitot tube consists of a tube with an impact opening of 3.125 mm to
6.35 mm diameter pointing towards the approaching fluid. This measures the
stagnation pressure. An ordinary upstream tap can be used for measuring the line
pressure. A pressure instrument measures the differential pressure, which is
proportional to the square of the stream velocity in the vicinity of the impact
pressure sensing hole. The velocity equation for the pitot tube is given by
v = Cp √2gh
where Cp is the pitot tube constant

• It is a device used for measuring the velocity of flow at any point in a pipe or a channel
• It is based on the principle that if velocity of flow at a point becomes zero, the pressure
there is increased due to the conversion of the kinetic energy into pressure energy
• In simplest form, pitot tube consists of a glass tube, bent at right angles
 APPLICATION
A pitot tube, also known as pitot probe, is a flow measurement device used to
measure fluid flow velocity. It is widely used to determine the airspeed of
an aircraft, water speed of a boat, and to measure liquid, air and gas flow velocities
in certain industrial applications. A pitot-static system is a system of pressure-
sensitive instruments that is most often used in aviation to determine an
aircraft's airspeed, Mach number, altitude, and altitude trend. A pitot-static system
generally consists of a pitot tube, a static port, and the pitot-static instruments
Why do race cars have pitot tubes?
A Pitot tube is a pressure measuring instrument used to measure fluid flow
velocity. F1 teams place Pitot tubes in areas where they want to measure the air
speed. As these tubes contains air, a pressure can be measured as the moving air
pushing against the tip of the tube as it is brought to rest.
What instruments use the pitot tube?
So, there is three flight instruments that
ultimately use this pitot-static system – the
airspeed indicator, the altimeter, and the
vertical speed indicator.
Velocity of flow in a pipe by pitot tube A piezometer is either
For finding the velocity at an point a device used to
 Pitot tube along with vertical piezometer tube measure liquid
 Pitot tube connected with piezometer tube pressure in a
 Pitot tube and vertical piezometer tube connected with u- system by measuring
tube manometer the height to which a
 Pitot-static tube – two circular concentric tubes column of the liquid
Advantages rises against gravity,
or a device which
1. No pressure loss. measures the
2. It is relatively simple. pressure of
3. It is readily adapted for flow groundwater at a
measurements made in very large pipes specific point.
or ducts.

Disadvantages
1. Poor accuracy.
2. Not suitable for dirty or sticky fluids and fluids
containing solid particles.
3. Sensitive to upstream disturbances.
 Variable Area Meters - Rotameter
A rotameter is a device that measures the volumetric flow rate of fluid
(liquids and gases) in a closed tube. It belongs to a class of meters called
variable-area flowmeters, which measure flow rate by allowing the cross-sectional
area the fluid travels through to vary, causing a measurable effect.
What are the main parts of rotameter?
The two basic components of every rotameter are the
tapered metering tube and the float. Tube sizes vary
from 1/16 to 4 in., with a 1/8–2 in. range being the most
common. Of course, each model has limitations as to
capacity, temperature, pressure, and, in the case of
liquids, viscosity.
Important applications of rotameter 
•Rotameters are used in different industries.
•These are used where there is a quality air supply is required.
•This is used where low pressure is necessary.
•Used in laboratories.
•Process and oil industries.
•Used in the medical field for measurement of oxygen flow rate.
 Rotameter flow meters are devices that can measure the flowrate of
liquids and gases. Generally, the rotameter is a tube made of plastic,
glass or metal combined with a float, which responds linearly to the
flowrate of the fluid in that tube.
Working principle of rotameters
It consists of a tapered tube; as fluid passes through that tube, it raises
the float. Greater volumetric flow exerts more pressure on the float, lifting it
higher. In liquids, the velocity of the flowing liquid combines with buoyancy
to raise the float; for gases, buoyancy can be neglected and the float height
is set mostly by the velocity of the gas and consequent pressure.
Generally, the tube is mounted vertically; with no flow, the float rests at the
bottom, but once fluid passes upwards from the bottom of the tube, the
float will begin to rise. Ideally, the heights that the float move through are
proportional to the fluid flow rate and the annular area between the float
and the tube wall. As the float rises, the size of the annular opening
increases which decreases the differential pressure across the float. The
system reaches an equilibrium, and the float reaches a fixed position, when
the upward force exerted due to fluid flow balances the weight of the float –
the float is levitated by the fluid flow. You can then read off the flow-rate for
a particularare
Rotameters fluid’s density
typically and with
provided viscosity. 
calibration data and direct reading scales for
commonly-used fluids – air and water. Sizing a rotameter for use with other fluids requires
conversion into one of those standard formats; for liquids, the water equivalent in gpm; for
gases, the air flow equivalent in standard cubic feet per minute (scfm). 
Characteristics:
Linearity: The flow rate (volume) through a variable area meter is essentially
proportional to the area and, as a result, most of these meters have increments
of equal scale.
Differential:An important characteristic of the variable area meter is that the
loss of pressure through the float is a constant. The general differential across
the meter will increase at higher flow rates due to friction losses through the
fittings.
Accuracy: The most common accuracy is ± 2% of full scale reading. This
increases considerably with the individual calibration and the length of the scale.
The repeatability is excellent
Capacity: Variable-area flow meters are the most commonly used means to
measure low flow rates. The large-scale capacities range from 0.5 cm3 / min of
water and 30 cm3 standard / min of air in the smallest units to more than
1200 liters / min of water and 1700 m3 / h of air in meters of 8 cm height.
Minimum Piping Requirement: An area meter can usually be installed without
taking into account the connections or lengths of straight pipe procedures or
following the meter.
Corrosive or difficult to handle liquid: These can often be successfully managed
in an area meter. They include materials such as oil, tar, coolants, sulfuric acid,
black liquor, beverages, aqua regia and molten sulfur.
Pressure Drop: By placing very light floats on larger gauges, the flow rates can
be managed with a combination of very low pressure loss (often 2.5 cm water
column or less) and a 10: 1 flow rate
 Floats:

The floats can be made from various materials to

obtain resistance to corrosion or modification of
capacity. The classifications are generally in terms of
meter capacity, using a stainless steel float.
Advantages of rotameter Disadvantages of rotameter:
•Low cost. •It is difficult to handle the glass
•Low pressure drop. tube type.
•Rangeability is better. •It must be mounted vertically.
•It is suitable for small flow rates. •It is not suitable for pulsating
•It is easily equipped with alarms and services.
switches or any transmitting devices. •Generally it is limited to small pipe
•It also measures the flow rate of corrosive services.
fluids. •It is limited to low temperatures.
•There is an availability of viscosity- •Accuracy is = ± 1/2 to 10%.
immune floats. •It requires in-line mounting.
•It can be used in some light slurry
services.
 Rotameter Equations and Derivations
The Rotameter can be arranged vertically where the base of the tube is thin and
gets broad when the top is reached. The flow begins from the base and moves up to
the place where the float’s weight balances the strength used by the liquid flow. If
the fluid stays lower as compared to the speed of sound, the
incompressible Bernoulli’s theorem equation is applied simply as equilibrium on the
rotameter system. 1V2 p
z C
In the above equation, 2 g g
‘g’ is the gravitational acceleration
‘V’ is the fluid’s velocity
‘z’ height on top of an arbitrary origin
‘C’ is constant
First, we need to set the above equation to zero as all powers are balanced on the
rotameter once the float is fixed. 1 V 2 p
g  z 0
 2 g  g 
1
V 2  gz  p
2
After that, compare for points at top (b) & bottom (a) of the liquid float.
1 2 1 2
V2  V1  gz 2  gz1  p1  p 2
2 2
The above equation can be simplified to  V 2

1 2 
p  gh f  Vb 1   a  
2   Vb  
In the above equation, ‘f’ denotes the properties of the float where the ‘hf’ is the
float’s height. The volumetric liquid flow rate is similar at the top & the bottom of
the liquid float, so
Q  Va Aa  Vb Ab
In the above equation, ‘Q’ is the volumetric supply, ‘V’ is the volumetric flow & ‘A’
is the area. A  Q
From the above equation,  Vb  Va  a  
 Ab  Ab

Substitute this ‘Vb’ value in Bernoulli’s equation.

1 Q 
2
 A 
2

p  gh f     1   b  
2  Ab    Aa  
From the above equation, for solving ‘Q’
 
2p  gh f 
2  
Q   2p  gh  
   Q
f
 Ab
 Ab    A 2     A   2

 1   b     1   b   
  Aa      Aa   
 
The change within pressure can be found to be typically from the weight of the
float.
F V f  f   g
p  p 
A Af
In the above equation, ‘Vf’is the amount of the float, ‘ρf’ is the float’s density & ‘fA’ is
the region of the float.
Ideal inviscid liquids would allow the equation of flow which is shown above,
however, the energy can be changed into heat. Generally, lowers the actual velocity
of the liquid. The viscosity of the fluid can be accounted for using the discharge
coefficient (C).
 V f  f    
2g  h f 
 Af 
Q  CAb  
  A 2 
 1   b  
  Aa  
Notches and Weirs
 Coefficient of Discharge
• Coefficient of discharge for rectangular weir given by Rehbock is,

The method of determining the theoretical flow through a notch is the same as that
adopted for a large orifice.
• As in the case of orifice, the actual discharge through a notch or weir can be found by
multiplying the theoretical discharge by a coefficient of discharge
• The velocity of the liquid approaching the notch is very small so that its kinetic energy
can be neglected;
• the velocity through any horizontal element across the notch will depend only on its
depth below the free surface.
• This is a satisfactory assumption for flow over a notch or weir in the side of a large
reservoir, but, is the notch or weir is placed at the end of a narrow channel, the velocity
of approach to the weir will be substantial and the head h producing flow will be
increased by the kinetic energy of the approaching liquid to a value
• Suppressed weirs:
When the length of crest of the weir is same as the width of the
channel, the weir is said to be suppressed weir. Thus in this case,
the effects of sides of the weir is eliminated or suppressed. Thus
for suppressed weirs, length of weir crest = width of channel.
• Contracted weirs:
When the crest length of a rectangular weir is less than the
width of the channel, there will be lateral contraction.
Flow rate (Q) for contracted rectangular weirs is estimated from,

• Where n is the number of contractions.

• n = 0 if the notch is full width of the channel;
• n = 1 if the notch is narrower than the channel but is arranged with one edge coincident with
the edge of the channel;
• n = 2 if the notch is narrower than the channel and is situated symmetrically.
• Submerged weir:
When the water on the downstream side of a weir rises above
the level of the crest, the weir is said to be a submerged weir.

• The flow over the submerged weir may be considered by dividing the flow into two portions:
• Flow over the upper part of the line AB may be considered as weir flow (H1-H2). (flow rate
Q1)
• Flow through the remaining depth H2 may be considered as discharge through a submerged
orifice. (flow rate Q2)
• Q1 = (2/3)Cd1B(H1-H2)3/2Ö (2g)
• Q2 = Cd2BH2Ö (2g(H1-H2))
• Total flow rate Q = Q1 + Q2