‫جامعة كركوك‬

‫كلية الهندسة‬
‫قسم هندسة الميكانيك‬

‫‪Pipe flow rate meters‬‬

‫اعداد الطالب‬
‫دمحم جمعة عالوي‬

‫‪9191-9102‬‬
The Venturi effect is the reduction in fluid pressure that results when a fluid flows through
a constricted section (or choke) of a pipe. The Venturi effect is named after its
discoverer, Giovanni Battista Venturi.

Background

In fluid dynamics, an incompressible fluid's velocity must increase as it passes through a

constriction in accord with the principle of mass continuity, while its static
pressure must decrease in accord with the principle of conservation of mechanical
energy (Bernoulli's principle). Thus, any gain in kinetic energy a fluid may attain by its
increased velocity through a constriction is balanced by a drop in pressure.

By measuring pressure, the flow rate can be determined, as in various flow

measurement devices such as Venturi meters, Venturi nozzles and orifice plates.

Choked flow

The limiting case of the Venturi effect is when a fluid reaches the state of choked flow,
where the fluid velocity approaches the local speed of sound. When a fluid system is in a
state of choked flow, a further decrease in the downstream pressure environment will not
lead to an increase in the mass flow rate. However, mass flow rate for a compressible fluid
will increase with increased upstream pressure, which will increase the density of the fluid
through the constriction (though the velocity will remain constant). This is the principle of
operation of a de Laval nozzle. Increasing source temperature will also increase the local
sonic velocity, thus allowing for increased mass flow rate but only if the nozzle area is also
increased to compensate for the resulting decrease in density.

Expansion of the section

The Bernoulli equation is invertible, and pressure should rise when a fluid slows down.
Nevertheless, if there is an expansion of the tube section, turbulence will appear and the
theorem will not hold. In all experimental Venturi tubes, the pressure in the entrance is
compared to the pressure in the middle section; the output section is never compared with
them.

Experimental apparatus

Venturi tubes

The simplest apparatus is a tubular setup known as a Venturi tube or simply a Venturi
(plural: "Venturis" or occasionally "Venturies"). Fluid flows through a length of pipe of
varying diameter. To avoid undue aerodynamic drag, a Venturi tube typically has an entry
cone of 30 degrees and an exit cone of 5 degrees.[1]
Venturi tubes are often used in processes where permanent pressure loss is not tolerable
and where maximum accuracy is needed in case of highly viscous liquids.

Orifice plate

Venturi tubes are more expensive to construct than simple orifice plates, and both function
on the same basic principle. However, for any given differential pressure, orifice plates
cause significantly more permanent energy loss.

Examples[edit]

The Venturi effect may be observed or used in the following:

Machines

 Cargo eductors on oil product and chemical ship tankers

 Inspirators mix air and flammable gas in grills, gas stoves, Bunsen
burners and airbrushes

 Water aspirators produce a partial vacuum using the kinetic energy from the faucet
water pressure

 Steam siphons use the kinetic energy from the steam pressure to create a partial
vacuum

 Atomizers disperse perfume or spray paint (i.e. from a spray gun)

In nature

 Aortic insufficiency is a chronic heart condition that occurs when the aortic valve's
initial large stroke volume is released and the Venturi effect draws the walls together,
which obstructs blood flow
 Hawa Mahal of Jaipur, also utilizes the Venturi effect, by allowing cool air to pass
through, thus making the whole area more pleasant during the high temperatures in
summer.
flow nozzle

When a flow nozzle is placed in a pipe carrying whose rate of flow is to be measured, the
flow nozzle causes a pressure drop which varies with the flow rate.

This pressure drop is measured using a differential pressure sensor and when calibrated
this pressure becomes a measure of flow rate.

Description of Flow Nozzle

The main parts of flow nozzle arrangement used to measure flow rate are as follows:

1. A flow nozzle which is held between flanges of pipe carrying the fluid whose flow
rate is being measured. The flow nozzle’s area is minimum at its throat.

2. Openings are provided at two places 1 and 2 for attaching a differential pressure
sensor (u-tube manometer, differential pressure gauge etc.,)

Operation of flow Nozzle

1. The fluid whose flow rate is to be measured enters the nozzle smoothly to the
section called throat where the area is minimum.

2. Before entering the nozzle, the fluid pressure in the pipe is p1. As the fluid enters
the nozzle,the fluid converges and due to this its pressure keeps on reducing until it
reaches the minimum cross section area called throat. This minimum pressure p2 at
the throat of the nozzle is maintained in the fluid for a small length after being
discharged in the down stream also.

3. The differential pressure sensor attached between points 1 and 2 records the
pressure difference (p1-p2) between these two points which becomes an indication
of the flow rate of the fluid through the pipe when calibrated.

Applications of Flow Nozzle

1. It is used to measure flow rates of the liquid discharged into the atmosphere.

2. It is usually used in situation where suspended solids have the property of settling.

3. Is widely used for high pressure and temperature steam flows.

Advantages of flow Nozzle

1. Installation is easy and is cheaper when compared to venturi meter

2. It is very compact

3. Has high coefficient of discharge.

Disadvantages of flow Nozzle

1. Pressure recovery is low

2. Maintenance is high

3. Installation is difficult when compared to orifice flow meter.

orifice meter
An orifice meter is a conduit and a restriction to create a pressure drop. An hour glass is a
form of orifice. A nozzle, venturi or thin sharp edged orifice can be used as the flow
restriction.

In order to use any of these devices for measurement it is necessary to empirically calibrate
them. That is, pass a known volume through the meter and note the reading in order to
provide a standard for measuring other quantities.

Due to the ease of duplicating and the simple construction, the thin sharp edged orifice has
been adopted as a standard and extensive calibration work has been done so that it is
widely accepted as a standard means of measuring fluids. Provided the standard mechanics
of construction are followed no further calibration is required.

An orifice in a pipeline is shown in figure with a manometer for measuring the drop in
pressure (differential) as the fluid passes through the orifice. The minimum cross sectional
area of the jet is known as the “vena-contracta.”

How does it work?

As the fluid approaches the orifice the pressure increases slightly and then drops suddenly
as the orifice is passed. It continues to drop until the “vena contracta” is reached and then
gradually increases until at approximately 5 to 8 diameters downstream a maximum
pressure point is reached that pressure upstream of the orifice.

The decrease in pressure as the fluid passes thru the orifice is a result of the increased
velocity of the gas passing thru the reduced area of the orifice.

When the velocity decreases as the fluid leaves the orifice the pressure increases and tends
to return to its original level. All of the pressure loss is not recovered because of friction
and turbulence losses in the stream.

The pressure drop across the orifice increases when the rate of flow increases. When there
is no flow there is no differential. The differential pressure is proportional to the square of
the velocity, it therefore follows that if all other factors remain constant, then the
differential is proportional to the square of the rate of flow.

BETA RATIO is the ratio of orifice plate bore divided by pipe I.D. is referred to as the Beta
Ratio or d/D where d is the plate bore and D is the pipe I.D.

THE ORIFICE PLATE

The orifice plate bore can be made in many configurations to handle various flow
measurement jobs. The flowing conditions should be checked to see which of the
configurations is suitable for each measurement job.

a. The Thin Plate, Concentric Orifice

In the design and use of orifice plates, several basic factors must be followed to assure
accurate and reliable measurement. The upstream edge of the orifice must be sharp and
square. Minimum plate thickness based on pipe I.D., orifice bore, etc. is standardized.

The plate should not depart from flatness along any diameter by more than 0.01 inch per
inch of the dam height (D-d)/2. To conform with recommended practices, the orifice-to-
pipe diameter ration d/D (called Beta ratio), must not exceed recommended limits.

b. Eccentric Orifice Plates

The eccentric plate has a round opening (bore) tangent to the inside wall of the pipe. This
type of plate is most commonly used to measure fluids which carry a small amount of non-
abrasive solids, or gases with small amounts of liquid, since with the opening at the bottom
of the pipe, the solids and liquids will carry through, rather than collect at the orifice plate.

c. Segmental Orifice Plates

The opening in a segmental orifice plate is comparable to a partially opened gate valve.
This plate is generally used for measuring liquids or gases which carry non-abrasive
impurities such as light slurries or exceptionally dirty gases.

Predictable accuracy of both the eccentric and segmental plate is not as good as the
concentric plate.

d. Quadrant Edge Plate

The quarter-circle or quadrant orifice is used for fluids of high viscosity. The orifice
incorporates a rounded edge of definite radius which is a particular function of the orifice
diameter.

e. Conic Edge Plate

The conic edge plate has a 45° bevel facing upstream into the flowing stream. It is useful for
even lower Reynolds numbers than the quadrant edge.