Process Measurement and

Instrumentation

Lecture-3
By
Dr. M. Jayakumar
Assistant Professor
Department of Chemical Engineering
Haramaya University
November-2018
Chapter -3
Pressure Measurements
Introduction
Pressure is the force exerted by gases and liquids
due to their weight
The pressure of the atmosphere on the surface of
the earth and
The pressure containerized liquids exert on the
bottom and walls of a container.
 Pressure units are a measure of the force acting
over a specified area.
It is most commonly expressed in
pounds per square inch (psi), sometimes
pounds per square foot (psf)
in English units, or Pascals
(Pa or kPa) in metric units.
TABLE .1 Specific Weights and Specific
Gravities of Some Common Materials
Basic Terms
• Density (ρ) is defined as the mass per unit
volume of a material, i.e., pound (slug) per cubic
foot (lb (slug)/ft3) or kilogram per cubic meter
(kg/m3).
• Specific weight (γ) is defined as the weight per
unit volume of a material, i.e., pound per cubic
foot (lb/ft3) or Newton per cubic meter (N/m3).
• Specific gravity of a liquid or solid is a
dimensionless value since it is a ratio of two
measurements in the same unit.
• It is defined as the density of a material divided
by the density of water or
• It can be defined as the specific weight of the
material divided by the specific weight of water
at a specified temperature.
• Static pressure is the pressure of fluids or
gases that are stationary or not in motion (see
Fig.1). Point A is considered as static pressure
although the fluid above it is flowing.
• Dynamic pressure is the pressure exerted by a
fluid or gas when it impacts on a surface or an
object due to its motion or flow. In Fig. 5.1 the
dynamic pressure is (B − A).
• Impact pressure (total pressure) is the sum of
the static and dynamic pressures on a surface
or object. Point B in Fig. 5.1 depicts the
impact pressure.
Example problem 3.1, The liquid in a container has a
total weight of 250 lb; the container has a 3.0 ft2 base.
What is the pressure in pounds per square inch?
Example problem 3.2, The weight of this cubic foot (ft3)
of water is 62.3 lb at 20°C, and this weight is exerted
over the surface area of 1 ft2,or 144 in. 2 Figure 3.2
shows water in a cubic foot container. Determine
pressure.
Pressure Measurement
☼ There are six terms applied to pressure
measurements.

They are as follows:

• Total vacuum–which is zero pressure or lack of
pressure, as would be experienced in outer space.
• Vacuum is a pressure measurement made
between total vacuum and normal atmospheric
pressure (14.7 psi).
• Atmospheric pressure is the pressure on the earth’s
surface due to the weight of the gases in the earth’s
atmosphere and is normally expressed at sea level as 14.7
psi or 101.36 kPa.
• It is however, dependent on atmospheric conditions.
• The pressure decreases above sea level and at an
elevation of 5000 ft drops to about 12.2 psi (84.122 kPa).
• Absolute pressure is the pressure measured with
respect to a vacuum and is expressed in pounds per
square inch absolute (psia).
Gauge pressure is the pressure measured with
respect to atmospheric pressure and is normally
expressed in pounds per square inch gauge (psig).

Figure 5.2a shows graphically the relation between atmospheric,

gauge, and absolute pressures.
Example problem 3.3 ,The atmospheric pressure is 14.5 psi.
If a pressure gauge reads 1200 psf, what is the absolute
pressure?
Example problem 3.4, What pressure in pascals corresponds
to 15 psi?
• Measuring Instruments
• Manometers
• Manometers are good examples of pressure
measuring instruments, though they are not as
common as they used to be because of the
development of new, smaller, more rugged, and
easier to use pressure sensors.
• U–tube manometers consist of U-shaped glass
tubes partially filled with a liquid.
• When there are equal pressures on both sides, the liquid
levels will correspond to the zero point on a scale as
shown in Fig. 3a. The scale is graduated in pressure units.

• Figure 3 Simple U-tube manometers with (a) no differential pressure

and (b) higher pressure on the left side.
• When a pressure is applied to one side of the U-
tube that is higher than on the other side, as
shown in Fig. 3b, the liquid rises higher in the
lower pressure side, so that the difference in the
heights of the two columns of liquid compensates
for the difference in pressure, as in hydrostatic
equation.
• The pressure difference is given by Where ᵧ is the
specific weight of the liquid in the manometer.
• Inclined manometers
• were developed to measure low pressures.
• The low pressure arm is inclined, so that the fluid
has a longer distance to travel than in a vertical
tube for the same pressure change.
• This gives a magnified scale as shown in
Figure.
• Well manometers are alternatives to inclined manometers for
measuring low pressures using low-density liquids.
• In the well manometer, one leg has a much larger diameter
than the other leg, as shown in Figure.

• When there is no pressure difference the liquid levels will be at

the same height for a zero reading.
☼ Gauges are a major group of pressure sensors that
measure pressure with respect to atmospheric
pressure.
☼ Gauge sensors are usually devices that change
their shape when pressure is applied.
These devices include

Diaphragms
Capsules
Bellows, and Bourdon tubes.
 ☼ A diaphragm consists of a thin layer or film
of a material supported on a rigid frame and is
shown in Figure.
☼ ͏Pressure can be applied to one side of the
film for gauge sensing or pressures can be applied
to both sides of the film for differential or absolute
pressure sensing.
☼ The deformation in the above sensing devices
uses transducers to give electrical signals.
 ☼ All these devices the micro machined silicon
diaphragm is the most commonly used industrial
pressure sensor for the generation of electrical signals.

☼ A diaphragm consists of a thin layer or film of a

material supported on a rigid frame and is shown in
Figure.

☼ Pressure can be applied to one side of the film

for gauge sensing or pressures can be applied to both
sides of the film for differential or absolute pressure
sensing.
 ☼ The deformation in the above sensing devices
uses transducers to give electrical signals.
☼ All these devices the micro machined silicon
diaphragm is the most commonly used industrial
pressure sensor for the generation of electrical
signals.

A silicon diaphragm uses silicon, which is a

semiconductor.
 ☼ This allows a strain gauge and amplifier to be
integrated into the top surface of the silicon
structure after the diaphragm was etched from the
back side.
☼ Commercially made devices are available for
gauge, differential, and absolute pressure sensing up
to 200 psi (1.5 MPa).
☼ This range can be extended by the use of
stainless steel diaphragms to 100,000 psi (700 MPa).
 Figure shows the cross sections of the three
configurations of the silicon chips (sensor dies)
used in micro miniature pressure sensors, i.e.,
gauge, absolute, and differential.
The given dimensions illustrate that the sensing
elements are very small.
The die is packaged into a plastic case (about 0.2
in thick X 0.6 in diameter).
A gauge assembly is shown in Figure.
The sensor is used in
blood pressure monitors
many industrial applications,
extensively used in automotive pressure-sensing
applications,
i.e., manifold air pressure, barometric air
pressure, oil, transmission fluid, brake fluid, power
steering, tire pressure and the like.
Capsules are two diaphragms joined back to back,
as shown in Figure.
Pressure can be applied to the space between the
diaphragms forcing them apart to measure gauge
pressure.
The expansion of the diaphragm can be
mechanically coupled to an indicating device.
 The deflection in a capsule depends on its
diameter, material thickness, and elasticity.
Materials used are phosphor bronze, stainless
steel, and iron nickel alloys.
 The pressure range of instruments using these
materials is up to 50 psi (350 kPa).
Capsules can be joined together to increase
sensitivity and mechanical movement.

Bellows are similar to capsules, except that the

diaphragms instead of being joined directly
together are separated by a corrugated tube or
tube with convolutions, as shown in Figure.
 When pressure is applied to the bellows it
elongates by stretching the convolutions and not
the end diaphragms.
The materials used for the bellows type of
pressure sensor are similar to those used for the
capsule, giving a pressure range for the bellows of
up to 800 psi (5 MPa).
 Bellows devices can be used for absolute and
differential pressure measurements.
Differential measurements can be made by
connecting two bellows mechanically, opposing
each other when pressure is applied to them, as
shown in the below figure a.
 When pressures P1 and P2 are applied to the
bellows a differential scale reading is obtained.
Figure b shows a bellows configured as a
differential pressure transducer driving a linear
variable differential transformer (LVDT) to obtain
an electrical signal, P2 could be the atmospheric
pressure for gauge measurements.
The bellows is the most sensitive of
the mechanical devices for low-pressure
measurements, i.e., 0 to 210 kPa.
Bourdon tubes
Bourdon tubes are hollow, cross-sectional beryllium,
copper, or steel tubes, shaped into a three quarter circle, as
shown in Figure a.
 They may be rectangular or oval in cross
section, but the operating principle is that the outer
edge of the cross section has a larger surface than
the inner portion.
When pressure is applied, the outer edge has a
proportionally larger total force applied because of
its larger surface area, and the diameter of the
circle increases.
 The walls of the tubes are between 0.01 and 0.05 in
thick.
The tubes are anchored at one end so that when
pressure is applied to the tube, it tries to straighten and
in doing so the free end of the tube moves.
This movement can be mechanically coupled to a
pointer, which when calibrated, will indicate pressure as
a line of sight indicator, or it can be coupled to a
potentiometer to give a resistance value proportional to
the pressure for electrical signals.
 Figure b shows a helical pressure tube.
This configuration is more sensitive than the circular
Bourdon tube.
The Bourdon tube dates from the 1840s.
It is reliable, inexpensive, and one of the most common
general purpose pressure gauges.
 Bourdon tubes can withstand overloads of up to
30 to 40 percent of their maximum rated load
without damage, but if overloaded may require
recalibration.
The tubes can also be shaped into helical or
spiral shapes to increase their range.
The Bourdon tube is normally used for
measuring positive gauge pressures, but can also be
used to measure negative gauge pressures.
 Bourdon tubes can withstand overloads of up to
30 to 40 percent of their maximum rated load
without damage, but if overloaded may require
recalibration.
The tubes can also be shaped into helical or
spiral shapes to increase their range.
The Bourdon tube is normally used for
measuring positive gauge pressures, but can also be
used to measure negative gauge pressures.
 If the pressure on the Bourdon tube is lowered,
then the diameter of the tube reduces.
This movement can be coupled to a pointer to
make a vacuum gauge.
Bourdon tubes can have a pressure range of up
to 100,000 psi (700 MPa).
Figure shows the Bourdon-tube type of pressure
gauge when used for measuring negative pressure
(vacuum) (a) and positive pressure (b). Note the
counterclockwise movement in (a) and the clockwise
movement in (b).
Other pressure sensors
Barometers are used for measuring atmospheric
pressure.
A simple barometer is the mercury barometer
shown in Figure a.
It is now rarely used due to its fragility and the
toxicity of mercury.
 A piezoelectric pressure gauge is shown in Figure
b.
Piezoelectric crystals produce a voltage between
their opposite faces when a force or pressure is
applied to the crystal.
This voltage can be amplified and the device
used as a pressure sensor.
Thank You