Lecture no.

Industrial Instrumentation
In This Lecture:
 Components of Instruments
 Performance Characteristics of
Instruments

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Components of Instruments
Sensors

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 Sense

Convert Detect

Sensor

Measure Infer

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Properties of a good sensor:
A good sensor:
 Is sensitive to the measured property
 Is insensitive to any other property likely to be

encountered in its application

 Does not influence the measured property

 Ideal sensors are designed to be linear or linear to

some simple mathematical function of the
measurement.

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Sensor Sensitivity:
  

 It indicates how much the sensor's output changes

when the measured quantity changes.
◦ If the mercury in a thermometer moves 1 cm when the
temperature changes by 1 °C, the sensitivity is 1 cm/°C.

◦ Sensors that measure very small changes must have very high
sensitivities.

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Sensor Deviations
If the sensor is not ideal, several types of deviations
can be observed:

 Since the range of the output signal is always

limited, the output signal will eventually reach a
minimum or maximum when the measured
property exceeds the limits.
 The output signal is not zero when the measured
property is zero.
 The output signal may slowly change independent
of the measured property.

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Sensor Deviations (Cont.)
 The sensor may to some extent be sensitive to
properties other than the property being
measured. For example, most sensors are
influenced by the temperature of their
environment.

 If the sensor has a digital output, the output is

essentially an approximation of the measured
property. The approximation error is also called
digitization error.

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Sensor Resolution

The resolution of a sensor is the smallest change it

can detect in the quantity that it is measuring.

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Properties which can be measured by sensors:
 Acoustic, Sound,  Navigation
Vibration  Optical, Light, Imaging
 Environment,  Pressure
Weather, Moisture,  Position, Angle,
Humidity Displacement, Distance,
 Composition, Weight Speed, Acceleration
 Electric Current,  Proximity
Electric Potential,  Thermal, Heat,
Magnetic, Radio Temperature
 Flow, Fluid Velocity
 Force, Density, Level

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Applications of Sensors

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Transducers

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Introduction
 A transducer is a device that converts one type of energy
to another.

 The conversion can be to/from electrical, electro-

mechanical, electromagnetic, photovoltaic, or any other
form of energy.

 A sensor differs from a transducer in the way that a

transducer converts one form of energy into other form
whereas a sensor converts the received signal into
electrical form only.

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Types:
 Input transducer:
◦ Converts a physical signal to electric signal

 Output transducer (Actuator):

◦ Converts an electric signal to a non-electric signal
◦ An actuator accepts energy and produces action.

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Signal Processors

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A/D and D/A Convertors

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Amplifiers / Attenuators

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Hookup Wires

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Recorders

a) Chart Recorders
b) Data Loggers

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a) Chart Recorders
 Strip chart recorders
 Circular chart recorders
 Roll chart recorders

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Applications
 Instant visual feedback is required

 Used where the need, opportunity or technical

ability to download and view data on a
computer is not available

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b) Data Loggers
 Ability to automatically collect data on a 24-
hour basis.
 Upon activation, data loggers are typically

deployed and left unattended to measure and

record information for the duration of the
monitoring period.
This allows for a comprehensive, accurate picture
of the environmental conditions being monitored,
such as air temperature and relative humidity.

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Applications
 Unattended weather station recording (such as wind speed /
direction, temperature, relative humidity, solar radiation).
 Unattended hydrographic recording (such as water level, water
depth, water flow, water pH, water conductivity).
 Unattended soil moisture level recording.
 Unattended gas pressure recording.
 Process monitoring for maintenance and troubleshooting
applications.
 Process monitoring to verify warranty conditions
 Tank level monitoring.
 Load profile recording for energy consumption management.

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Performance Characteristics
of Instruments
Introduction

The detailed specifications of the functional

characteristics of any instruments are termed as its
performance characteristics.

◦ Indicative of the capabilities and limitations of the

instrument for a particular service.
◦ Types:
 Static Characteristics
 Dynamic Characteristics

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Static Calibration

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Static Calibration
 A test in which known values of the input are
applied to a sensor (measurement system) for the
purpose of observing the sensor (system) output is
termed as “Static Calibration”.

 The input-output relation obtained after Static

Calibration is called “Calibration curve”.

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Static Characteristics

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Accuracy & Precision

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Mistakes
 Introduced due to human activities
◦ Careless reading
◦ Mistakes in recording observations
◦ Incorrect application of a correction
◦ Improper application of instruments
◦ Computational errors
 Can be avoided only by taking care in reading and
recording the measurement data.
◦ At least three independent reading should be taken,
preferably under conditions in which instruments are
switched off and on.

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 Error

Numerical difference between true value of a quantity and

its value as obtained by a measurement.

 GROSS ERROR:
◦ Reading the wrong numbers from a tape measure
◦ Making a measurement with the tape snagged around some
structure
◦ Reading the wrong values from a form when processing the
measurements

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 SYSTEMATIC ERROR:
Systematic errors are ones that can be repeated and can
be accounted for in processing.
 If you calibrate a tape measure against a known
standard and find that it always measures distances
that are too long.

1. Instrumental error
Error inherent in instrument due to the mechanical
structure

2. Environmental error
Conditions external to the instrument.

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Sources of Error
 Insufficient knowledge of the process
parameters and design conditions
 Poor design
 Change in process parameters, irregularities,
upsets, etc.
 Poor maintenance
 Error caused by people who operate
instrument equipment

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Range:
The lowest and highest reading an instrument can measure.
 A thermometer is calibrated from 0 -100 ºC has a range
of 0 - 100 ºC.

Span:
The algebraic difference between the upper and lower range
values.
 The thermometer calibrated from 0 - 100 ºC has a span
of 100 ºC.
 Also called “Full scale output”

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Dead Zone
Dead zone (dead spot) is the largest range of
values of a measured variable to which the
instrument does not respond.

Sensitivity
 
Incremental ratio of the output signal (y) to
the desired input signal (x).

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Linearity
The closeness to which a curve approximates a
straight line.
a) Best-fit straight line
b) Terminal-based straight line
c) Independent straight line

Resolution (Least Count)

The least interval between two adjacent discrete
details which can be distinguished from one
another.

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Hysteresis (Backlash)

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Drift
Drift is an undesired change or a gradual variation
in output over a period of time that is unrelated to
changes in input, operating conditions, or load.

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Dynamic Characteristics

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Introduction
 Dynamic characteristics refer to the
performance of the instrument when the
input variable is changing rapidly with
time.

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Offset
 The steady state deviation when the set point is
fixed is called offset.

 It is the reading of the instrument with zero

input.

 If it is deliberately set, it is called “Bias”

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Speed of Response
It is the rapidity with which an instrument
responds to changes in the measured quantity.

 The speed of response gives the information about

how fast the system responds to the change in
inputs i.e. compatibility of device with fast varying
inputs.

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Fidelity
Fidelity is the ability to reproduce the changes in
input signal faithfully.

 Fidelity ~ Precision (Static Characteristic)

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Lag
It is a retardation or delay in the response of
an instrument to changes in the measured
quantity.

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