Digital Circuit Testing

Testing of Combinational Circuit

• Complex submicron chips / multi-chip PCBs  possibility of errors
in the manufacturing process  physical faults in the digital circuits
• Need to test at manufacturer before shipping out
• Need to test periodically at user end as faults can also develop due
to various circuit stresses (high temp, moisture, impact, etc.)
• Testing Scenarios
– Fault-detecting test set (FDTS): inputs (test vectors) detecting
presence/absence of faults (under certain assumptions, e.g., single
fault).
– Fault-locating test set (FLTS): inputs locating the fault(s).
– CUT: Circuit under test .
– Signature: Compaction of all O/Ps
• Fault Models
– Types: permanent, intermittent, transient responses
– Many possible physical faults: E.g., broken or shorted wires, defective
transistors, noise, improper power voltage Vdd
stuck-at-on

Wire break (s-a-0) Wire short to GND (s-a-0)

Defective transistor (always on)
 Fault Models (Contd.)
• A good fault model that can account for the logical behaviors of most faults is the “stuck at” fault model: s-a-0, s-a-1 for each interconnect/wire
in the circuit

Vdd

s-a-on
• The s-a-0/1 fault model accounts for most physical fault types but not all. E.g., it does not account for ‘bridging’ faults) since we cannot say if
either wire is s-a-0 or s-a-1—this situation will change dynamically based on the values (1 or 0) being driven on the wires and which driver is
stronger
s-a-1

Wire break (s-a-0) Wire short to GND (s-a-0) Defective transistor (always on)

Bridging fault (2 signal

wires shorted)
 Function Notations in Fault Circuits
1
x1
x2 4 f(x3)=x1x2+x3
2
x3 5 f
3

For f(xn)=f(x1, x2,…,xn), let p be a wire in the circuit and d in

{0,1}. Then fp/d(x1,…,xn) is the function for the faulty circuit with
wire p s-a-d.
E.g., f3/0(x3)=x1x2, and f2/1( x3)=x1+x3
1
x1 1
4 f3/0
x 1
x2 2 2 4
5 x 2
s-a-1
x3 5
3 s-a-0 x3 f2/1
3
 Fault Testing
Tests Response
• Circuits with r wires have 2r different
single faults and 3r-1 possible x1 x2 x3 Ckt Exp
single/multiple faults. o/p .
• Exhaustive testing is impractical for resp
large circuits since it take O(2n) time for 0 0 0 0 0
n-inputs. 0 0 1 0 1
Test 0 1 0 0 0
CUT O/Ps
…

vector 0 1 1 0 1
Compare 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 1
Expected
responses 1 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 1
• Need to determine a minimum set of inputs that can test for
(detect/catch) any single fault. Single fault detection is a good goal as:
• Probability of multiple faults is much lower than single faults
• Mutiple faults take much more time to detect
 Test Generation
• Function: f(x1,…,xn) (≡f(Xn)) represents the fault-free
circuit.
• A test Ti for fault p/d is an input vector Xnj to the circuit
for which:
fp/d(Xnj) = f(Xnj)
where j is the decimal value of the n bit binary input.
• E.g., X31 =001 is a test for 3/0 for the earlier example:
[f(x3)=x1x2+x3, f3/0(x )=x1x2] as f(X31)=1 and f3/0(x31)=0
3

• An alternative way of looking at this provides the basis

for the EX-OR method of test generation:
– The above condition implies Xnj is a test for p/d iff:
f(Xnj) + fp/d(Xnj)=1
– The minterms (MTs) of Fp/d= f + fp/d are tests for p/d.
 EX-OR Method
• MTs of Fp/d=f + fp/d are tests for p/d. Can be determined algebraically
• E.g., In the previous example [f(x3)=x1x2+x3]
F1/0=(x1x2+x3) + x3=x1x2x’3. Hence, test=110 (only MT for F1/0 ) for 1/0
F3/0=(x1x2+x3) + x1x2 = x’1x3+x’2x3. Hence, test=001, 011,101 (MTs of F3/0)
• These tests (MTs of Fp/d) can also be determined in a tabular manner as
shown below, but this is more cumbersome

Input Functions realized The XOR’s (1 in a col.

by Faulty Circuits indicates i/p vector is a
Vectors
test for the corresp.
fault)
x1 x2 x3 f f1/0 f2/1 f3/0 f+ f+ f + f3/0
f1/0 f2/1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1
1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0
 Fault Table
• Displays a set of faults (generally single faults) and a set of test inputs that test
them (i.e., detect them)—can be drived, for ex., from the XOR table
• A “1” at the intersection of i/p vector X nj and fault p/d  Xnj is a test for p/d
• A “0” at the intersection of i/p vector X nj and fault p/d  Xnj is not a test for p/d

Tests Faults
x1 x2 x3 1/0 1/1 2/0 2/1 3/0 3/1 4/0 4/1 5/0 5/1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1
0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
 Determining a Minimal Test Set
• A test set for a fault set S is a set of i/p vectors (also called test vectors [TVs]) which contains at least
one test for each fault in S
• From the fault table, we need to determine a minimal test set that covers all faults in the table (the set of
faults in the table is the set S)
• Determining a minimal test set  lower testing cost in terms of
– Test time (this allows, for ex, product to get to market faster after manufacturing testing)
– Power consumption during testing
• Determining a minimal test set is a minimal covering problem, just like in the PIT part of QM where we
need to cover all MTs w/ a minimal set of PIs (this is especially true in PLA design, where each PI has a
cost of 1).
– Here, TVs  PIs and faults  MTs
– So a QM-type method can be used for covering all faults using a minimal set of TVs
– TV cost = 1, and since there is no multi-function type issue as in QM for logic min., costs are not mentioned

• After all the

essential TVs Tests Faults
(ETVs) and their
faults are deleted on
x1 x2 x3 1/0 1/1 2/0 2/1 3/0 3/1 4/0 4/1 5/0 5/1
fault 3/0 remains
• In the reduced 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1
fault table (RFT), all
TVs covering 3/0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 4
cover each other & *(ETV)
all but one can be 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1
deleted (dels not *(p-ETV)
0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 6
shown here for *(ETV)
simplicity) 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 2
• We choose to not
delete TV 011, & it 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 5
is thus chosen to *(ETV)
cover 3/0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 3
• Final minimal test 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
set = {010, 011,
100, 110}
3 1 3 2 4 1 3 1 3 1
 Path Sensitizing method
• XOR method can be very cumbersome for leven
medium-size circuits.
• An alternative more time-efficient method: Path Wire p FT
Sensitizing method d’ p2
z
1. Select a path from fault-site p to ckt. o/p(s). 1 z z’
For fault p/d, z is the “fault value” (z = d if s-a-d p1
there is a fault p/d) (p/d) 0 z
2. Forward Trace (FT): 0
• Choose intermediate logic values at gate i/ps p3
along the path, so that logic values of
lines/wires in the path are functions of z (i.e., • If the reqd values shown above for wires p,
z or z’). p1, p2 and p3, can be “injected” into them via
• Also, choose the complement value d’ to the some TV at the ckt i/ps (such TV(s) are
fault value to be “injected” at the fault line ( determined during BT)  we have a test for
for no fault @ p, z = d’) p/d, since:
• The path is then said to be “sensitized” from • If there is a fault p/d, z = d, and o/p = z’
the fault site to the o/p.
= d’
3. Backward Trace (BT): • If there is no fault @ p, z = d’ (d’ is
• Trace backwards and establish circuit inputs,
if possible, required for obtaining the logic injected at p)  o/p = z’ = d
values at different points in the sensitized • Thus o/p for p/d != o/p for no fault @ p
paths determined during FT. BT
• If there is a “conflicting” values needed at any Wire p
i/p or intermediate points/wires during BT  d’ p2
Circuit I/Ps
thre is no test for p/d z
• Don’t cares (X’s) at i/ps after BT w/ no BT 1 z
s-a-d p1
conflict anywhere else  multiple tests for BT
p/d (<= 2k tests if k i/ps have X’s after BT) (p/d) 0 z
4. This method may not yield all possible tests 0
for a fault p/d (unlike the XOR method) BT p3
• This can compromise minimal test set
determination I/P cone of p3
 Path Sensitizing method (contd)
• Examples of sensitized i/ps for different gates
• Can also determine these for other gates/components (e.g., XOR, XNOR, AOI, MUXes)

1/0 1/1 1/0 1/1

Two x =1 z x1=0 z z x1=1 x1=0 z
1 z z z z
input x =0 x2=0 x2=1 x2=1
2

OR gate w/ s-a-0 OR gate w/ s-a-1 AND gate w/ s-a-0 AND gate w/ s-a-1

Four input
2/0 2/1 2/0 2/1
x1=0 x1=0 x1=0 x1=0
x2=1 z x2=0 x2=1 z x2=0 z
x3=0 z x3=0 z z x3=0 z x3=0
x4=0 x4=0 x4=0 x4=0 z

2/0 2/1
2/1 2/0
x1=1 x1=1
x2=1 x1=1 x1=1
z x2=0 x2=1 z x2=0 z
x3=1 z z z x3=1 z
x4=1 x3=1 z x3=1
x4=1 x4=1 x4=1
 Path Sensitizing method (contd)

Backward trace
BT 1/0 Forward trace
4
1 z 1
x1=1 1 x1=X/0
x2=1 4 f x2=0/X 2 0
f
2 1 z z 3 5 z
x3=0 5 z x3=0 0 z
3 0 3/1
Forward trace
Confirm w/ XOR method:
F1/0=(x1x2+x3) + x3=x1x2x3’ Confirm: F3/1=(x1x2+x3) + 1 =
 test for 1/0 = {110} (x1’+x2’)x3’ = x1’ x3’ + x2’x3’ 
tests for 3/1 = {000, 010, 100}
 Path Sensitizing method (contd)
• Facts in fanout-free circuits (circuits in which each gate o/p feeds only 1 gate i/p
or is a ckt o/p) and circuits w/ fanout (at least 1 gate o/p feeds > 1 gate i/ps):
– For a given sensitized path, each wire along the path for p/d is also tested for a s-a-0
or s-a-1 fault as determined as follows:
• For each wire w on the sensitized path, if logic value on w is z, then w is tested for w/d,
otherwise (logic value on w is z’) it is tested for w/d’
• In Fig. 1 below, a test for 3/1 is also a test for 5/1 (the sensitized path is 3  5)
• There is only 1 path from an i/p to an o/p  each wire is on at least one (unique) path from
an i/p to an o/p
• Thus fan-out free ckts can be tested for all possible single s-a-0 and s-a-1 faults by testing
each primary input for s-a-0 and s-a-1 faults
• For fanout ckts, if the faulty point has a fanout, then its test will test all sensitized
paths for that test; but all fanout paths from a fault may not be sensitized; so a
faulty point’s test is not necessarily a test for all fanout paths
– Thus should try to do multipath sensitization (either simultaneously or sequentially) if
possible (it is not always!) in fanout ckts. For sensitization of simultaneous paths,
when the paths are reconvergent, then only under special cases (given later) will tests
for the primary fault be tests for wires on these paths
– If after tests for primary i/ps and their sensitized paths are determined for all possible
faults, if some wires remain untested (because a path to them from primary i/ps
cannot be sensitized), start the process from such wire(s) w/ the lowest level and find
tests for them and all their sensitized paths z z’
Backward p1/d p6/d p8/d
trace 1 p7/d’ z
x1=X/0
Test Xnj

Forward trace z z’
d’ z’
4 f z’ p4/d
x2=0/X 2 0 2 sensitized p2/d’
3 z 5 z paths for p1/d p3/d’ z p5/d’
x3=0 0 Fig. 2: Xnj is a test for p1/d, p2/d’, p3/d’, p4/d &
3/1
p5/d’ on path1 and p6/d, p7/d’ & p8/d on path 2
Fig. 1: Test set for 3/1 & 5/1 = {000, 100, 010} if sensitized non-simultaneously
 Testing Circuits with Fanout
• Path sensitization: a) Multiple or single paths can be sensitized.
2/0 2/0
1 0 4
x1=1 4 x1=0 0 6
6
z
x2=11 z x2=1 z z
z 1
0 z
x3=0 5 x3=1 5
• Single path sensitized by TV 110; also a test for 4/0, • Another single path sensitized by TV 011; also a
6/0.
test for 5/0 & 6/0.
• Further, the path is sensitized also for fault 2/1, except
for a 0 needed now to be injected on wire 2. Thus if wire • Further, as in the top path sensitization, the
2 is a primary i/p and does not provide any of the “other” vector 001 is a TV for 2/1 (and 5/1, 6/1)
i/ps to any gate on the senstitized path, then just by
changing the corresponding i/p from 1 to 0, we get a test
vector 100 for 2/1 (and 4/1, 6/1). • Double path sensitized by TV 111
Reconvergence • However, this TV is not a test for 4/0, 5/0. E.g., consider fault 4/0.
point/gate of the
Since if 2 is non-faulty (nf)—we are testing for only single faults—
2/0 2 fan-out paths
wire 2 takes on value 1, which causes a 1 on wire 5, thus not
1 4 sensitizing the path from wire 4 to the o/p 6.
x1=1
6 • It is, however, a test for 6/0, since wire 6 occurs after the two paths
z reconverge (check out that 111 injects a 1 into 6)
x2=1 z z
1 z • The corresp. double path sens. based test for 2/1 is 101 (as
x3=1 discussed above)
5
1 • TV 101 is also a test for 4/1, 5/1 and 6/1. E.g., consider 4/1. TV
101 injects a 0 into 4 (needed as the complement of the s-a-1 on 4),
and on 5, needed for sensitizing the path from 4 to o/p 6
 Testing Circuits with Fanout---Multipath sensitization

• From the previous example, we can obtain (and prove) the following rules for
determining when a test for an initial fault location p/d determined using multipath
sensitization, is also a test for subsequent wires on these paths:

z z’ p8/d
p1/d p6/d z
p7/d’
o/p1
Test Xnj

z z’
d’ p4/d z’
z’
2 sensitized p2/d’ o/p2
paths for p1/d p3/d’ z p5/d’

• (a) If the multiple sensitized paths are not reconvergent, as shown above, then the wires pj
on each path is also tested by the determined TV(s) for p 1/d, based on whether the logic
variable on wire pj is z—the logic variable on p1—(tested for pj/d) or z’ (tested for pj/d’)
 Testing Circuits with Fanout---Multipath sensitization (contd)
z z’ Reconvergence
p1/0 p6 p8 point/gate
p7 or

Test Xnj
z z’ z z z’
1 p4 z
z’
2 sensitized p2 p5 p9/0 p10/1
paths for p1/0 p3 z

No tests for these wires

• (b) If: (i) the test is for p1/0, (ii) the multiple sensitized paths are reconvergent at an OR or NOR gate,
and (iii) the i/ps to this gate are all z, as shown above, then the tests determined this way for p 1/0 are not
tests for any pj/d (d= 0 or 1) for wires pj on each path from p1 to the reconverging gate. However, from the
reconvergent point onwards, wires pk are also tested by the determined TV(s) for p 1/0, based on
whether the logic variable on wire pk is z—the logic variable on p1—(tested for pk/0) or z’ (tested for pk/1)
z z’
p8/1 Reconvergence
p1/1 p6/1 point/gate
p7/0
Test Xnj

z or
z z’ z z’
0 z’ p4/1 z
2 sensitized p2/0 p9/1 p10/0
paths for p1/1 p3/0 z p 5/1

• (c) If: (ii) the test is for p1/1, (ii) the multiple sensitized paths are reconvergent at an OR or NOR gate, and
(iii) the i/ps to this gate are all z, as shown above, then the tests determined this way for p 1/1 are also tests
on subsequent wires pj on these paths for pj/d (d= 1, 0 for logic z, z’ resp. on pj) as shown above
• (d) The above two situations are completely reversed when condition (iii) in (b)-(c) changes to: (iii) the i/ps
to the reconvergent gate are all z’ (the first 2 conditions in (b) remaining unchanged) as follows:
Alternate of (b): All the p1/0 test(s) determined here are also test(s) for the intermediate wires s-a-0/1
(based on z/z’ var, resp. on them) on the sensitized paths. This is b/c for an intermediate wire p j, z’ on the
other path(s) (the one(s) not containing p j) = 0  path through pj via the reconv. OR/NOR gate is
sensitized
Alternate of (c): None of the the p1/1 test(s) determined here are tests on the intermediate wires on these
paths before the reconvergent point (since z’ on the “other” path(s) = 1 thus not sensitizing the path
 Testing Circuits with Fanout---Multipath sensitization (contd)
z z’ Reconvergence
p1/1 p6 p7 p8 point/gate
or

Test Xnj
z z’ z z z’
0 z’ p4 z
2 sensitized
p2 p9/1 p10/0
p3 z p5
paths for p1/1
No tests for these wires
• (e) If: (i) the test is for p1/1, (ii) the multiple sensitized paths are reconvergent at an AND or NAND gate,
and (iii) the i/ps to this gate are all z, as shown above, then the tests determined this way for p 1/1 are not
tests for any pj/d (d= 0 or 1) for wires pj on each path from p1 to the reconverging gate. However, from the
reconvergent point onwards, wires pk are also tested by the determined TV(s) for p 1/1, based on whether the
logic variable on wire pk is z—the logic variable on p1—(tested for pk/1) or z’ (tested for pk/0)
z z’
Reconvergence
p1/0 p6/0 p8/0
j

p7/1 point/gate
n

or
Test X

z z’ z z z’
1 z’ p4/0 z
2 sensitized p2/1 p5/0 p9/0 p10/01
paths for p1/0 p3/1 z
• (f) If: (i) the test is for p1/0, (ii) the multiple sensitized paths are reconvergent at an AND or NAND gate,
and (iii) the i/ps to this gate are all z, as shown above, then the tests determined this way for p 1/0 are also
tests on subsequent wires pj on these paths for pj/d (d= 0, 1 for logic value z, z’, resp., on p j) as shown
above
• (g) The above two situations are completely reversed when condition (iii) in (e)-(f) changes to: (iii) the i/ps
to the reconvergent gate are all z’ (the first 2 conditions remaining unchanged) as follows:
Alternate of (e): All of the p1/1 test(s) determined here are test(s) for the intermediate wires s-a-0/1 (based
on z/z’ var, resp. on them) on the sensitized paths. This is b/c for an intermediate wire p j, z’ on the other
path(s) (the one(s) not containing pj) = 1  path through pj via the recconv. AND/NAND gate is sensitized
Alternate of (f): None of the the p1/0 test(s) determined here are tests on the intermediate wires on these
paths before the reconvergent point (since z’ on the “other” path(s) = 0, thus not sensitzing the path through
pj). They, are, however, tests for wires after the reconvergent gate.
• (h) There cannot be simultaneously sensitized paths reconvergent on 2-i/p XOR/XNOR gates (the paths
 Testing Circuits with Fanout (contd)
• Path sensitization (contd)
– b) In some cases, only single path sensitization will work and multiple will not (fault free
O/P->O/P with fault at ckt O/P will be either 1->1 or 0->0, thus not detecting the fault.).

p/0 2/0 (1- 1

1->1 x1=1
z >0)
1 z 1 z z 1->0
z x2=1
0
z
General case.
x3=0
Single path sensitized by TV 110
2/0 2/0
1 Not a
x1=0 0 x1=1 function of z
0->1 z z
x2=1 x2=1
z z z z 1
z z (1->1)
x3=1 1
x3=1 1
Single path sensitized by TV 011 Double path produced by 111
is not a test
 Testing Circuits with Fanout
• Path sensitization (contd)
– c) In other cases, single path sensitization will not work, and only
multiple path will. p/1
Not possible to get a 0, but 1
may be possible get a z at z 1/z
1
an intermediate gate on the 1
0 z 0->1
path being sensitized in the 1/z (either x1=1 z
x2=0 &1 1
FT possible)
0 1
General case Need to get a
Conflict!
z instead of 1 Forward trace OK, but
p/1 for sensitization backward trace fails.
1
0 z 0->1 Double path
x1=1 1 z produces a test
x2=1 1
(11)
1 z
 Summary of Path Sensitization
• Overall Technique for Fanout-Free Circuits:
o Sensitize the unique path P(p,q) from a primary inp. p to an op. q, for p/d, and get
corresponding tests for all wires along this path.
o Repeat process for p/d’ sensitization (sometimes very easy to derive from p/d sensitization as
in prev. examples, but sometimes not, in which case have to do from scratch), and obtain the
tests for the complement faults of wires on P(p,q)
• Overall Technique for Circuits with Fanout:
o In turn, try single path sensitization from inp. p to op. q on each path from p  q for p/d until
sensitization obtained. When this is attained, the tests for the successful path will be tests for
corresponding faults on all wires on this path as explained earlier. (An option is not to stop at
the 1st successful path, but to continue until all possible single paths from p  q are sens. as
this gives us more tests for p/d to choose from in the fault table and also provides tests for
additional wires on these paths.)
o Repeat above process for p/d’
o If single path sensitization is not possible for p/d or p/d’, then try all possible multiple paths
in turn from 2 paths onwards as explained earlier. If sensitization is obtained, then as
explained earlier, the tests obtained for p/d or p/d’ (as the case may be), may or may not be
a test for wires of these simultaneously sensitized paths
o If after tests obtained for all primary inputs via the above process, some internal wires still
have no tests, then repeat the above steps for each such internal wire p, in order of
increasing “levels” of such wires (i.e., starting from those at the smallest level, since tests for
smaller level wires can yield test for higher level ones if on the same sensitized paths)
• Pros and Cons:
o Adv over XOR method:
1. A test for p/d automatically becomes tests for various faults along all single sensitized
paths from p (do not have to compute them separately), and in some cases on
simultaneously sensitized paths
2. Generally, more time efficient
o Disadv wrt XOR method:
1. Not all tests for a p/d may be found (if we stop before exploring all paths from p, in all
combinations of simultaniety), thus the fault table is not exhaustive, and the least-cost
test set may not be found
2. Worst-case more complex
Overview of Testing Phases
For each wire p and each d in {0,1}
find tests for p/d by either:
(a) the XOR method or
(b) the path-sensitizing

Construct the fault table from the

above tests (Note: the path-sensitizing
method may not find all tests, though it
will find at least 1 test for each p/d, if it exists)

Find a minimal test set from the fault

table using a min-cost covering
technique (e.g., similar to that used in
the PIT part of single-function QM)