FOUNDATION SETTLEMENT

Definitions

• Foundation
It is the lowest part of structure. The function of a foundation is to
safely transmit weight of the structure, together with the effect of
live loads and wind loads to the soil on which the structure rests.

• Settlement
It is the vertical displacement of a soil mass brought about by a
volume change in the soil due to structural loads. The volume of
soil mass decreases due to decrease in volume of voids.

• Allowable Settlement
It is the maximum settlement a structure can tolerate and still
perform properly. It depends upon the importance and utility of
the structure.
 Types of Settlements

• Uniform Settlement
It is type of settlement brought about when entire
structure settles evenly under uniform pressure
distribution on homogeneous soil.
 
• Differential Settlement
When the settlement is non-uniform or some part
of the structure settle more than the other, the
settlement is called differential settlement.
 Components of Settlement

• Immediate Settlement / Elastic Settlement, S i

It is decrease in volume of soil mass due expulsion of air
from the voids of a soil mass.
• Consolidation settlement /Primary Consolidation, S c
It is a gradual process involving escape of water from
pore, gradual compression of a soil mass and stress
transfer.
• Inelastic/Plastic/ Secondary Consolidation, S s 
It results from plastic deformation of soil a mass under
constant loads.
Components of Settlements

Si = Immediate Settlement
Settlement

Sc = Consolation Settlement

SS = Secondary
Settlement

Load
 Causes of Settlement

• Soil bearing capacity failure.

• Failure due to deflection of foundation structure.
• Compression of soil mass under loads.
• Ground subsidence due to mines, caves or underground
erosion.
• Landslide or creep.
• Vibration in case of loose cohesion less soil
• Lowering of water table.
• Lack of lateral support in excavation.
• Chemical action including decay.
 Remedial Measures

• Remove the soft layer.

• Use of deep foundation.
• Reconsolidation or preloading the building site.
• Construction of building slowly.
• Chemical and mechanical stabilization.
• Provision of lateral support or counter weight
against lateral expulsion of soil mass from
underneath the foundation.
 Immediate/Elastic Settlement

Where Si = Immediate settlement

q = Intensity of contact pressure in the unit of Es
B’ = least lateral dimension of footing in unit of Si
Iw = Influence factor which depends on shape and
Rigidity of footing ( Bowles Table 4.1 )
Es μ, Elastic properties of soil.
 
Poisson ratio, μ
Sand μ = 0.2 to 0.4
Clay μ = 0.4 to 0.5

Young Modulus, Es
Sand Es = 500 (N +15)
Clayey sand Es = 320 (N +15)
Silty sand Es = 300 (N +6)
Gravely sand Es = 12500 (N +6)
 Consolidation Settlement
• Consolidation is a gradual process involving slow
escape of water from the pores of soil mass, gradual
compression of soil mass and stress transfer to the
soil particles
• Terzaghi says “every process involving a decrease in
water contents of saturated soil without replacement
of water by air is called process of consolidation.
• When a structure settles because of consolidation of
a soil mass is called consolidation settlement.
• Consolidation in only vertical direction is termed as
one dimensional consolidation.
Consolidation Mechanics by Spring Analogy
 Types of Consolidated Soils
• Normally Consolidated Soil: Normally consolidated soil is the
one whose pre-consolidated pressure, Pc is equal to its
present effective overburden pressure,
Po = P c
• Over consolidated Soil: The soil which has been completely
consolidated under a large overburden pressure in the past,
larger than the present effective overburden pressure i.e.,
Po < P c
• Under consolidated Soil: The soil which is not fully
consolidated under the present overburden pressure is called
under consolidated soil
Po > Pc.
Determination of Pre-consolidation Pressure
 Indices Used for Estimating Consolidation Settlement

• Compression Index, Cc
The slope of virgin void ratio versus pressure plotted on semi-log scale curve (e-
log curve) is numerically equal to compression index

Cc = (eo-e1)/log p1/p0

Where Cc = Compression index

eo = Known void ratio at known pressure p0 po = Known pressure
e1 = Void ratio at pressure p1
p1 = Any desired pressure = Po + ∆p
 
When p1 = 10 p0
Cc = eo - e1
 

Approximately Cc = 0.009(LL-10)
Compression Index
Indices Used for Estimating Consolidation
Settlement
• Expansion Index, CE
Expansion index is the slope of unloading e-log p
curve

• Coefficient of Compressibility, av
The slope of void ratio versus pressure (e-p) curve
is known as coefficient of compressibility.
Coefficient of Compressibility, av
Indices Used for Estimating Consolidation
Settlement
• Coefficient of Volume Compressibility, mv
The ratio of coefficient of compressibility to the total volume
is known as coefficient of volume compressibility.

• Coefficient of Consolidation Cv 

The factor involved in characterizing the rate of consolidation
of a soil mass is called the coefficient of consolidation.

Where k= Coefficient of permeability

 Void Ratio at any Pressure

• During Compression

• During Expansion

Where
Fig 4.4: e –log P curve
Fig 4.5: Idealized void ratio – pressure diagram
 Estimation of Consolidation Settlement
Foundation loads causes settlement in the soil mass
because of stress increase at every point below the
foundation. The stress increase induces strains at every
point below the foundation and summation of all vertical
strains gives the total settlement.

z D

S
Thus we need to find out strain versus depth.
By definition:

1+

or
valid for normally consolidated soils only.
Where
S = Settlement, in, ft, cm
∆e = change in void ratio
eo = Known void ratio
H = Thickness of layer
P1 = po+ ∆p
∆p = Increase in stress due to foundation load
po = Known stress
Terzaghi One- Dimensional Consolidation Theory
• General
When soil is laterally confined and the water is expelled in
one direction only, it is known as one-dimensional consolidation.
The method already discussed in this Chapter for calculating
settlement can only be used to calculate the total settlement of
the structure due to compression but it tells nothing about the
rate at which settlement will occur. Terzaghi, employed
mathematical approach for predicting rate of settlement in soil
similar to that involved in the study of one dimensional flow of
heat through the body. The time rate settlement of soil mass
depends mainly on:
• Thickness of layer.
• No of drainage faces.
• Permeability of soil.
• Magnitude of consolidation pressure.
 Assumptions of Consolidation Theory

• Soil is a homogeneous material.

• Voids in the soil mass are fully saturated with water.
• Water in the voids is incompressible i.e., change in volume of
soil is affected by change in volume of voids
• The drainage in a laterally confined soil brought about by an
externally applied load take place in the vertical direction only.
• The coefficient of permeability remain constant throughout
the process of consolidation.
• Darcy’s law of permeability is applicable.
 Consolidation Equation
The partial differential equation for one-dimensional
consolidation process is given as:

where
= Rate of change of hydrostatic excess pore
Water pressure (g/cm2 sec).
Cv = Coefficient of consolidation (cm2 / sec).

= Change in hydraulic gradient (g/cm4).

=Amount of water expelled from the voids of the
clay throughout 1 cm2 and during time dt (g/cm2 sec)

The solution of Terzaghi equation helps us determine

degree and the rate of consolidation in a clay layer.
 Degree of Consolidation
The degree of consolidation represents condition at a point in
the consolidating layer (Figure 4.6). The solution of Terzaghi
differential equation yields the following expression to find the
degree of consolidation.

Where
U = Pore water pressure at any elapsed time, t and depth z.
U1 = Initial pore water pressure at t=0 and depth z.
z, T = Dimensionless parameters (z = Z/H, a Geometric Parameter
and T = Time factor)
Time factor T is dimensionless coefficient and depends on,
coefficient of consolidation, elapsed time and number of
drainage paths. The Time Factor can be computes as:
T = Cv (t/0.5 H2) [For two way drainage]
T = Cv (t/H2) [For one way drainage]
In which
Cv = Coefficient of consolidation.
H = Average height of soil specimen
t = Elapsed time.
The degree of consolidation can also be given as:
Uz = (St/S)100

Where
St = Settlement after time t.
S = Total settlement
 Average Degree of Consolidation
In most cases we are not interested in how much a given point
in a soil layer has consolidated; of practical layer .To obtain the
average degree of consolidation over the entire layer, under T-
curve as shown in the following table

Uavg = (St/S)100 Time Factor, T

0.1 0.008
0.2 0.0310
0.3 0.071
0.4 0.126
0.5 0.197
0.6 0.287
0.7 0.403
0.8 0.567
0.9 0.848
0.95 1.163
Figure 4.6:- Mechanics of consolation
Fig 4.7:- Consolation for any location and time factor
in a doubly drained layer (after Taylor, 1948)
Determination of Coefficient of consolidation
Cassagrande Semi logarithmic Plot
• Deformation dial readings are plotted versus the logarithm of
time to find R50 and t50 which are the dial reading and time for 50
percent consolidation respectively. To find t50 proceed as follows:

• Determine R0, the dial reading for zero percent consolidation.

• Determine R100, the dial reading corresponding to 100 percent
primary consolidation.
• Find R50,the dial reading for 50 percent consolidation as:
R50 = ½ (R0 – R100)
• Determine t50 corresponding to R50
• Determine the coefficient of consolidation as:

T50 = 0.197 [From Table 4.2]

Fig 4.8:- Determination of t50 by the
Cassagrande method: data from Table 9.2
 Taylor Square Root of Time Fitting Method

• Taylor devised an empirical

method for determining the
coefficient of consolidation
directly from the
compression-dial readings
taken at various time intervals
during compression of the soil
sample under the several
increments of load applied
during consolidation test. It is
called the “square root of
time fitting method. The
procedure is as follows for
details:
• Draw compression – dial reading versus square root of
The corresponding time interval.
• Draw a straight line though the early portion of the curve such
as OA.
• Draw second line OB which at each point has a abscissa 1.15
time that of OA.
• The intersection of curve OB with the laboratory curve is
assumed to be the point at which 90% of primary consolidation
has occurred.
• Determine time for 90% consolidation i.e t90.
• Calculate Cv using following equation considering two way
drainage of soil sample during consolidation test:

Where
T90 = 0.848 [From Table 4.2]
H = Average height of the sample.
 CONSOLIDATION TEST

OBJECT
To determine coefficient of consolidation, Cv’
coefficient of compression Cc, Coefficient of
compressibility av , and other parameters
required for the estimation of rate and
magnitude of settlement of structure on clayey
soils.

APPARATUS
Consolidometer consisting of:-

• Ring.
• Soil sample.
• Porous filter stones.
• Loading yoke.
• Steel ball bearing
• Circular loading plate.
• Dial gauge.
• Loading device.
• Trimming equipment, Timer.
• Balance and drying oven.
 PRESENTATION & REPORTING OF RESULTS
• Plot curve of the dial reading (or vertical strain) versus time on
semi log scale paper for each load increment. Find time for 50
percent consolidation for each load increment using logarithmic of
the time fitting method (Cassagrande Method). Find coefficient of
consolidation, Cv for each load increment.
• Plot curve on semi-log scale paper showing variations of
coefficient of consolidation Cv,with average consolidation pressure.
• Plot void ratio versus consolidation pressure on a semi-log scale
paper, and determine coefficient of compression, Cc from the lower
part of the curve.
• Plot void ratio versus consolidation pressure on arithmetic scale
and determine coefficient compressibility, av.
• Compile test report including site description, test procedure, test
results and conclusions.