NERVOUS SYSTEM

The Nervous
System

 A network of billions of nerve cells linked

together in a highly organized fashion to
form the rapid control center of the body.
 Functions include:
– Integrating center for homeostasis,
movement, and almost all other body
functions.
– The mysterious source of those traits that we
think of as setting humans apart from animals
Basic Functions of the Nervous
System
1. Sensation
 Monitors changes/events occurring in and outside the
body. Such changes are known as stimuli and the cells
that monitor them are receptors.
2. Integration
 The parallel processing and interpretation of sensory
information to determine the appropriate response
3. Reaction
 Motor output.
– The activation of muscles or glands (typically via the release
of neurotransmitters (NTs))
 1.
Nervous Tissue

 Highly cellular

 2 cell types
1. Neurons
 Functional, signal
conducting cells
2.
2. Neuroglia
 Supporting cells
 The functional and structural unit Neurons
of the nervous system
 Specialized to conduct information from one part of the
body to another
 There are many, many different types of neurons but most
have certain structural and functional characteristics in
common:
- Cell body (soma)
- One or more specialized,
slender processes
(axons/dendrites)
- An input region
(dendrites/soma)
- A conducting
component (axon)
- A secretory (output)
region (axon
terminal)
Soma
 Contains nucleus plus most
normal organelles.
 Biosynthetic center of the
neuron.
 Contains a very active and
developed rough endoplasmic
reticulum.
– The neuronal rough ER is In the soma above, notice the
referred to as the Nissl body.
small black circle. It is the
 Contains many bundles of
protein filaments (neurofibrils) nucleolus, the site of ribosome
which help maintain the shape, synthesis. The light circular
structure, and integrity of the area around it is the nucleus.
cell.
The mottled dark areas found
throughout the cytoplasm are
the Nissl substance.
Neuronal Processes
 Armlike extensions emanating from every neuron.
 The CNS consists of both soma and processes whereas the
bulk of the PNS consists of processes.
 Tracts = Bundles of processes in the CNS (red arrow)
Nerves = Bundles of processes in the PNS
 2 types of processes that differ in structure and function:
– Dendrites and Axons
 Dendrites are thin, branched processes whose main function
is to receive incoming signals.

 They effectively increase the surface area of a neuron to

increase its ability to communicate with other neurons.

 Convey info towards the soma thru the use of graded

potentials – which are somewhat similar to action
potentials.
 Most neurons have a single
axon – a long (up to 1m)
process designed to convey
info away from the cell body.
 Originates from a special
region of the cell body called
the axon hillock.
 Transmit APs from the soma
toward the end of the axon
where they cause NT release.
 Often branch sparsely, forming
collaterals.
 Each collateral may split into
telodendria which end in a
synaptic knob, which contains
synaptic vesicles –
membranous bags of NTs.
Axons
 Axolemma = axon
plasma membrane.
 Surrounded by a myelin
sheath, a wrapping of lipid
which:
– Protects the axon and electrically isolates it
– Increases the rate of AP transmission
 This wrapping is never complete. Interspersed
along the axon are gaps where there is no myelin –
these are nodes of Ranvier.
 In the PNS, the exterior of the Schwann cell
surrounding an axon is the neurilemma
 Myelination in the CNS

Myelination in the PNS

 A bundle of processes in the PNS is a nerve.
 Within a nerve, each axon is surrounded by an
endoneurium (too small to see on the photomicrograph) –
a layer of loose CT.

• Groups of fibers
are bound
together into
bundles
(fascicles) by a
perineurium (red
arrow).
• All the fascicles
of a nerve are
enclosed by a
epineurium
(black arrow).
Neuroglia
 Outnumber neurons by about
10 to 1

4 are found in the CNS:

1. Astrocytes
 Star-shaped, abundant, and
versatile
 Guide the migration of
developing neurons
 Act as K+ and NT buffers
 Involved in the formation of
the blood brain barrier
 Function in nutrient transfer
Neuroglia

2. Microglia
 Specialized immune cells that act as
the macrophages of the CNS
 it is important for the CNS to have
its own army of immune cells?
3. Ependymal Cells
 Low columnar epithelial-esque cells
that line the ventricles of the brain
and the central canal of the spinal
cord
 Some are ciliated which facilitates
the movement of cerebrospinal fluid
Neuroglia
4. Oligodendrocytes
 Produce the
myelin
sheath
which
provides the
electrical
insulation
for certain
neurons in
the CNS
Neuroglia
• 2 types of glia in the
PNS
1. Satellite cells
• Surround clusters of
neuronal cell bodies in the
PNS
• Unknown function
2. Schwann cells
• Form myelin sheaths
around the larger nerve
fibers in the PNS.
• Vital to neuronal
regeneration
Organization of the
Nervous System
 2 big initial divisions:
1. Central Nervous System
 The brain + the spinal cord
– The center of integration and control
2. Peripheral Nervous System
 The nervous system outside of the
brain and spinal cord
 Consists of:
– 31 pairs Spinal nerves
 Carry info to and from the
spinal cord
– 12 pairs Cranial nerves
 Carry info to and from the brain
 Brain

Functions Major Parts

• interprets sensations • cerebrum
• determines perception • two hemispheres
• stores memory • basal nuclei
• reasoning • diencephalon
• makes decisions • brainstem
• coordinates muscular • cerebellum
movements
• regulates visceral activities
• determines personality
Brain
 Gray and White Matter
• Microscopically, the CNS contains
2 neural elements:
• Neuron cell bodies (clusters
are known as nuclei)
• Nerve fibers (axons) in bundles
called tracts.
• Viewed macroscopically, CNS
tissues can be distinguished by
color:
• Gray matter consists of somata,
dendrites, and unmyelinated
axons.
• White matter consists primarily
of myelinated axons.
Brain Regions

1. Cerebrum
2. Diencephalon
3. Brainstem
4. Cerebellum

Cerebellum
 The largest, most
conspicuous portion of
the brain.
Cerebrum
 2 hemispheres
connected by the
corpus callosum.
 Has an outer cortex of
gray matter
surrounding an interior
that is mostly white
matter, except for a
few small portions.
 The surface is marked
by ridges called gyri
separated by grooves
called sulci.
 Deeper grooves called fissures separate large regions of the
brain.
– The median longitudinal fissure separates the cerebral hemispheres.
– The transverse fissure separates the cerebral hemispheres from the
cerebellum below.
 Deep sulci divide each hemisphere into 5 lobes:
– Frontal, Parietal, Temporal, Occipital, and Insula
 The central sulcus separates the frontal lobe from the parietal
lobe.
– Bordering the central sulcus are 2 important gyri, the precentral
gyrus and the postcentral gyrus.
 The occipital lobe is separated from the parietal lobe by the
parieto-occipital sulcus.
 The lateral sulcus outlines the temporal lobe.
– The insula is buried deep within the lateral sulcus.

Lobes of the
Cerebrum
Cerebrum
 Each cerebral
hemisphere is
divided into 3
regions:
1. Superficial cortex of
gray matter
2. Internal white
matter
3. The basal nuclei –
islands of gray
matter found deep
within the white
matter
Cerebral Cortex
 Allows for sensation,
voluntary movement,
self-awareness,
communication,
recognition, and more.
 Gray matter!
 40% of brain mass, but
only 2-3 mm thick.
 Each cerebral
hemisphere is
concerned with the
sensory and motor
functions of the
opposite side (a.k.a.
contralateral side) of
the body.
Cerebral Cortex

 3 types of functional areas:

1. Motor  Control voluntary
motor functions
2. Sensory  Allow for conscious
recognition of stimuli
3. Association  Integration
Cortical Motor Areas

1. Primary Motor
Cortex
2. Premotor Cortex
3. Broca’s Area
4. Frontal Eye Field
 Primary motor
Premotor cortex cortex

Frontal Eye
Field

Broca’s Area
Primary (Somatic) Motor
Cortex
 Located in the
precentral gyrus of each
cerebral hemisphere.
 Contains large neurons
(pyramidal cells) which
project to SC neurons
which eventually
synapse on skeletal
muscles
– Allowing for voluntary
motor control.
– These pathways are
known as the
corticospinal tracts or
pyramidal tracts.
Primary (Somatic)
Motor Cortex
 Somatotopy
– The entire body is represented
spatially in the primary motor
cortex, i.e., in one region we
have neurons controlling hand
movements and in another
region leg movements, etc.
 Neurons controlling movement of
different body regions do not
intermingle.
 What does it mean to say that
motor innervation is
contralateral?
 Let’s look at the motor
homunculus.
 Premotor Cortex
 Located just anterior
to the primary motor
cortex.
 Involved in learned
or patterned skills.
 Involved in planning
movements.
 Broca’s Area
 Typically found in only
one hemisphere (often
the left), anterior to the
inferior portion of the
premotor cortex.
 Directs muscles of
tongue, lips, and throat
that are used in speech
production.
 Involved in planning
speech production and
possibly planning other
activities.
 Frontal Eye Field

 Controls voluntary
eye movements.
 Found in and
anterior to the
premotor cortex,
superior to Broca’s
area.
 What muscles would
be affected if this
area was damaged?
Sensory Areas
 Found in the parietal, occipital, and
temporal lobes.

1. Primary somatosensory cortex

2. Somatosensory association cortex
3. Visual areas
4. Auditory areas
5. Olfactory cortex
6. Gustatory cortex
7. Vestibular cortex
Lateralization

 The fact that certain activities are the

almost exclusive domain of one of the
2 hemispheres.
 In most people, the left hemisphere has a more
control over language, math, and logic.
 While the right hemisphere is geared towards
musical, artistic and other creative endeavors.
 Most individuals with left cerebral dominance are
right-handed.
Cerebral White Matter
 Is white matter
involved in
communication?
 3 types of fibers:
1. Commissural – connect
corresponding areas of
the 2 hemispheres.
Largest is the corpus
callosum.
2. Association fibers –
connect different parts
of the same
hemisphere
3. Projection fibers –
fibers entering and
leaving the cerebral
hemispheres from/to
Basal Nuclei
 Set of nuclei deep within
the white matter.
 Includes the:
– Caudate Nucleus
– Lentiform Nucleus
 Globus pallidus
 Putamen

 Components of the extrapyramidal system which provides

subconscious control of skeletal muscle tone and
coordinates learned movement patterns and other somatic
motor activities.
 Doesn’t initiate movements but once movement is
underway, they assist in the pattern and rhythm (especially
for trunk and proximal limb muscles
Basal Nuclei
 Info arrives at the caudate nucleus and the putamen from
sensory, motor, and association areas of the cortex.
 Processing and integration occurs w/i the nuclei and then
info is sent from the globus pallidus to the motor cortex
via the thalamus.
 The basal nuclei alter motor commands issued by the
cerebral cortex via this feedback loop.
Diencephalon
 Forms the
central core of
the forebrain
 3 paired
structures:
1. Thalamus
2. Hypothalamus
3. Epithalamus

All 3 are gray matter

Thalamus
 80% of the
diencephalon
 Sensory relay station
where sensory signals
can be edited, sorted,
and routed.
 Also has profound input
on motor (via the basal
ganglia and cerebellum)
and cognitive function.
 Not all functions have
been elucidated.
Hypothalamus
 Functions:
– Autonomic regulatory center
 Influences HR, BP, resp. rate,
GI motility, pupillary diameter.

– Emotional response
 Involved in fear, loathing, pleasure
 Drive center: sex, hunger
– Regulation of body temperature
– Regulation of food intake
 Contains a satiety center
– Regulation of water balance and thirst
– Regulation of sleep/wake cycles
– Hormonal control
 Releases hormones that influence hormonal
secretion from the anterior pituitary gland.
 Releases oxytocin and vasopressin
 Epithalamus
 Above the thalamus
 Contains the pineal
gland which releases
melatonin (involved in
sleep/wake cycle and
mood).
 Contains a structure
called the habenula –
involved in food and
water intake
 Cerebellum
 Lies inferior to the cerebrum and
occupies the posterior cranial fossa.
 2nd largest region of the brain.
 10% of the brain by volume, but it
contains 50% of its neurons
 Has 2 primary functions:
1. Adjusting the postural muscles of the body
 Coordinates rapid, automatic adjustments, that maintain balance
and equilibrium
2. Programming and fine-tuning movements controlled at the
subconscious and conscious levels
 Refines learned movement patterns by regulating activity of both
the pyramidal and extrapyarmidal motor pathways of the
cerebral cortex
 Compares motor commands with sensory info from muscles and
joints and performs any adjustments to make the movement
smooth
Cerebellum
 Has a complex, convoluted
cortical surface with multiple
folds (folia) which are less
prominent than the gyri of
the cerebrum.

 Has anterior and posterior

lobes separated by the
primary fissure.

 Along the midline, a narrow

band of cortex called the
vermis separates the
cerebellar hemispheres.
Cerebellum
 Cerebellar cortex
contains huge, highly
branched Purkinje cells
whose extensive
dendrites can receive
up to 200,000
synapses.
 Internally, the white
matter forms a
branching array that in
a sectional view
resembles a tree.
 Cerebellum
 Tracts that link the cerebellum w/
the brain stem, cerebrum, and
spinal cord leave the cerebellar
hemispheres as the superior,
middle, and inferior cerebellar
peduncles.
– SCP carries instructions from cerebellar
nuclei to the cerebral cortex via
midbrain and thalamus
– MCP connects pontine nuclei to the
cerebellum. This info ultimately came
from the cerebral cortex and informs
the cerebellum of voluntary motor
activities
– ICP connects the cerebellum and the
medulla oblongata and carries sensory
information from muscles and from the
vestibular apparatus of the inner ear.
 Cerebellum
 The cerebellum can
be permanently
damaged by trauma
or stroke or
temporarily affected
by drugs such as
alcohol.
 These alterations
can produce ataxia –
a disturbance in
balance.
Brain Stem
• Located btwn the cerebrum
and the SC
• Provides a pathway for
tracts running btwn higher
and lower neural centers.
• Consists of the midbrain, pons,
and medulla oblongata.
• Each region is about an inch
in length.
• Microscopically, it consists of
deep gray matter surrounded
by white matter fiber tracts.
• Produce automatic behaviors
necessary for survival.
• Located btwn the
Midbrain
diencephalon and the
pons.
• 2 bulging cerebral peduncles
on the ventral side. These
contain:
• Descending fibers that go to
the cerebellum via the pons
• Descending pyramidal tracts
• Cranial nerves 3&4
(oculomotor and
trochlear) exit from the
midbrain
• Midbrain also contains the
headquarters of the
Midbrain
• On each side, the
midbrain contains a red
nucleus and a substantia
nigra
• Red nucleus contains
numerous blood vessels
and receives info from the
cerebrum and cerebellum
and issues subconscious
motor commands
concerned w/ muscle tone
& posture
• Lateral to the red nucleus is
the melanin-containing
substantia nigra which
secretes dopamine to
inhibit the excitatory
neurons of the basal nuclei.
Pons
• Literally means “bridge”
• Wedged btwn the midbrain & medulla.
• Contains:
• Sensory and motor nuclei for 4 cranial
nerves
• Trigeminal (5), Abducens (6), Facial (7),
and Auditory/Vestibular (8)
• Respiratory nuclei:
• Apneustic & pneumotaxic
centers work w/ the medulla to
maintain respiratory rhythm
• Nuclei & tracts that process and relay info
to/from the cerebellum
• Ascending, descending, and transverse
tracts that interconnect other portions of the
CNS
 Medulla Oblongata
• Most inferior region of the
brain stem.
• Becomes the spinal cord at
the level of the foramen
magnum.
• Ventrally, 2 ridges (the
medullary pyramids) are
visible.
• These are formed by the
large motor corticospinal
tracts.
• Right above the medulla-
SC junction, most of these
fibers cross-over
(decussate).
• Nuclei in the medulla are Medulla Oblongata
associated w/ autonomic
control, cranial nerves, and
motor/sensory relay.
• Autonomic nuclei:
• Cardiovascular centers
• Cardioinhibitory/cardioacceler
atory centers alter the rate
and force of cardiac
contractions
• Vasomotor center alters the
tone of vascular smooth
muscle
• Respiratory rhythmicity
centers
• Receive input from the pons
• Additional Centers
• Emesis, deglutition, coughing,
hiccupping, and sneezing
Medulla Oblongata
• Sensory & motor nuclei of 5
cranial nerves:
• Auditory/Vestibular (8),
Glossopharyngeal (9), Vagus
(10), Accessory (11), and
Hypoglossal (12)
• Relay nuclei
• Nucleus gracilis and nucleus
cuneatus pass somatic sensory
information to the thalamus
• Olivary nuclei relay info from the
spinal cord, cerebral cortex, and
the brainstem to the cerebellar
cortex.
What brainstem
structures are
visible here?
Limbic System
• Includes nuclei and tracts along the
border btwn the cerebrum and the
diencephalon.
• Functional grouping rather than
anatomical
• Functions include:
1. Establishing emotional states
2. Linking conscious cerebral cortical
functions w/ unconscious functions of
the brainstem
3. Facilitating memory storage and
retrieval
 Limbic lobe of the cerebrum consists of 3 gyri that curve along the corpus
callosum and medial surface of the temporal lobe.
 Limbic system  the center of emotion – anger, fear, sexual arousal,
pleasure, and sadness.
Reticular Formation
• Extensive network of neurons that
runs thru the medulla and projects
to thalamic nuclei that influence
large areas of the cerebral cortex.
• Midbrain portion of RAS most likely is
its center
• Functions as a net or filter for
sensory input.
• Filter out repetitive stimuli. Allows
passage of infrequent or important
stimuli to reach the cerebral cortex.
• Unless inhibited by other brain regions,
it activates the cerebral cortex –
keeping it alert and awake.
 Protection
• What is the major protection for the
brain?
• There are also 3 connective tissue
membranes called the meninges:
• Cover and protect the CNS
• Protect blood vessels
• Contain cerebrospinal fluid
• The 3 meninges from superficial to deep:
• Dura mater
• Arachnoid mater
• Pia mater
 Skin

Galea Aponeurotica

Connective Tissue

Bone

Dura Mater

Arachnoid mater
 Dura Mater
• Tough and leathery.
• Most superficial.
• 2 layers:
• Periosteal  attached to
the skull
• Meningeal  true external
covering, extends
downward and surrounds
spinal cord

 In several locations, the inner dura mater extends in to the

cranial cavity, forming a sheet that dips inward and then
returns. These dural folds provide additional support for the
brain. Dural sinuses may be found btwn the 2 layers of a
dural fold.
Arachnoid and Pia Mater
• Arachnoid:
• Loose spider-web of
connective tissue.
• Beneath it is the
subarachnoid space –
filled with blood
vessels and CS
• Pia
• Deepest and most
delicate
• Covers the brain tissue
• Follows its every ridge
and groove
Cerebrospinal Fluid

• Fills the space btwn the

arachnoid and pia mater, as
well as the internal cavities of
the brain (ventricles) and
spinal cord.
• Functions:
• Shock absorption
• Support
• Nourishment

 A choroid plexus consists of a combination of specialized

epednymal cells and permeable capillaries for the production of
CSF.
• Ependymal cells selectively secrete capillary filtrate into the
ventricles. They also remove waste products from the CSF and
adjust its composition over time.

• About 500mL of CSF is produced per day. The total volume of

CSF at any given moment is 150mL
• CSF circulates from the choroid plexus thru the ventricles and
the central canal of the spinal cord.
• CSF reaches the subarachnoid space thru 2 lateral apertures and a single
median aperture in the roof of the 4th ventricle. CSF then flows thru the
subarachnoid space surrounding the brain, spinal cord, and cauda equina
• Along the axis of the superior sagittal sinus, fingerlike extensions of the
arachnoid membrane, called arachnoid villi, penetrate the dura. In adults,
clusters of villi form arachnoid granulations.

CSF is
absorbed into
the general
circulation at
the arachnoid
granulations
Spinal Cord

• slender column of
nervous tissue
continuous with
brain
• extends downward
through vertebral
canal
• begins at level of
foramen magnum
and terminates near
first and second
lumbar
Cross Section of Spinal Cord
Functions of Spinal Cord

• center for spinal reflexes

• conduit for nerve impulses to and

from the brain
Meninges of the Spinal Cord
 Ventricles
• interconnected cavities
• within cerebral
hemispheres and brain
stem
• continuous with central
canal of spinal cord
• filled with cerebrospinal
fluid (CSF)

• lateral ventricles
• third ventricle
• fourth ventricle
• cerebral aqueduct
 Cerebrospinal Fluid

• secreted by choroid
plexus
• circulates in ventricles,
central canal of spinal
cord, and subarachnoid
space
• completely surrounds
brain and spinal cord
• clear liquid
• nutritive and protective
• helps maintain stable
ion concentrations in
CNS
Reflex Arcs
Reflexes – automatic, subconscious responses to stimuli
within or outside the body
Reflex Arcs
General Components of a Spinal Reflex
Reflex Behavior
• example is the knee-jerk reflex
• simple monosynaptic reflex
• helps maintain an upright posture
Reflex Behavior
• example is a withdrawal reflex
• prevents or limits tissue damage
Reflex Arc
• example crossed extensor reflex
• crossing of sensory impulses within the reflex center
to produce an opposite effect
 Tracts of the Spinal Cord
• Ascending tracts conduct sensory impulses to the brain
• Descending tracts conduct motor impulses from the brain to
motor neurons reaching muscles and glands
Ascending Tracts

• Major ascending spinal

cord tracts
1. fasciculus gracilis and
fasciculus cuneatus
2. spinothalamic
• lateral and anterior
3. spinocerebellar
• posterior and
anterior
Descending Tracts

• Major descending spinal cord

tracts
1. corticospinal
• lateral and anterior
2. reticulospinal
• lateral, anterior and
medial
3. rubrospinal
Nerve
Tracts
of the
Spinal
Cord
Peripheral Nervous System

• Cranial nerves arising from the brain

• Somatic fibers connecting to the skin and skeletal muscles
• Autonomic fibers connecting to viscera

• Spinal nerves arising from the spinal cord

• Somatic fibers connecting to the skin and skeletal muscles
• Autonomic fibers connecting to viscera
Peripheral Nervous System
 Responsible for communication btwn the CNS
and the rest of the body.
 Can be divided into:
– Sensory Division
 Afferent division
– Conducts impulses from receptors to the CNS
– Informs the CNS of the state of the body interior and exterior
– Sensory nerve fibers can be somatic (from skin, skeletal
muscles or joints) or visceral (from organs w/i the ventral
body cavity)
– Motor Division
 Efferent division
– Conducts impulses from CNS to effectors (muscles/glands)
– Motor nerve fibers
Motor Efferent Division

 Can be divided further:

– Somatic nervous system
 VOLUNTARY (generally)
 Somatic nerve fibers that conduct impulses from
the CNS to skeletal muscles
– Autonomic nervous system
 INVOLUNTARY (generally)
 Conducts impulses from the CNS to smooth
muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands.
Structure of a Peripheral Nerve
 Nerve Fiber Classification

• Sensory Nerves – conduct impulses into brain or spinal

cord

• Motor Nerves – conduct impulses to muscles or glands

• Mixed Nerves – contain both sensory nerve fibers and

motor nerve fibers; most nerves
 Nerve Fiber Classification

General somatic efferent fibers General somatic afferent fibers

• carry motor impulses from CNS • carry sensory impulses to
to skeletal muscles CNS from skin and skeletal
muscles

General visceral efferent fibers General visceral afferent fibers

• carry motor impulses away from • carry sensory impulses to CNS from
CNS to smooth muscles and blood vessels and internal organs
glands
Nerve Fiber Classification

Special somatic efferent fibers

• carry motor impulses from brain to muscles
used in chewing, swallowing, speaking, and
forming facial expressions

Special visceral afferent fibers

• carry sensory impulses to brain from olfactory and
taste receptors

Special somatic afferent fibers

• carry sensory impulses to brain from receptors of sight,
hearing, and equilibrium
Cranial Nerves
Cranial Nerves I and II

Olfactory (I) Optic (II)

• sensory • sensory
• fibers transmit • fibers transmit
impulses associated impulses associated
with smell with vision
Cranial Nerves III and IV

Oculomotor (III) Trochlear (IV)

• some sensory • some sensory
• proprioreceptors • proprioreceptors
• primarily motor • primarily motor
• motor impulses to • motor impulses to
muscles that muscles that move the
• raise eyelids eyes
• move the eyes
• focus lens
• adjust light entering
eye
 Cranial Nerve V
Trigeminal (V)
• mixed
• opthalmic division
• sensory from surface of eyes,
tear glands, scalp, forehead, and
upper eyelids
• maxillary division
• sensory from upper teeth, upper
gum, upper lip, palate, and skin
of face
• mandibular division
• sensory from scalp, skin of jaw,
lower teeth, lower gum, and
lower lip
• motor to muscles of mastication
and muscles in floor of mouth
 Cranial Nerves VI and VII
Abducens (VI)
• primarily motor
• motor impulses to
muscles that move
the eyes
• some sensory with
proprioreceptors

Facial (VII)
• mixed
• sensory from taste
receptors
• motor to muscles of
facial expression,
tear glands, and
salivary glands
 Cranial Nerves VIII and IX

Vestibulocochlear (VIII)
• sensory Glossopharyngeal (IX)
• mixed
• vestibular branch
• sensory from pharynx,
• sensory from
tonsils, tongue, and carotid
equilibrium receptors of
arteries
ear • motor to salivary glands
• cochlear branch
• sensory from hearing and muscles of pharynx
receptors
 Cranial Nerve X

Vagus (X)
• mixed
• somatic motor to
muscles of speech
and swallowing
• autonomic motor to
viscera of thorax and
abdomen
• sensory from
pharynx, larynx,
esophagus, and
viscera of thorax and
abdomen
Cranial Nerves XI and XII

Accessory (XI) Hypoglossal (XII)

• primarily motor • primarily motor
• cranial branch • motor to muscles of
• motor to muscles of the tongue; some
soft palate, pharynx, proprioreceptor
and larynx
• spinal branch
• motor to muscles of
neck, and back; some
proprioreceptor
Spinal Nerves

• mixed nerves

• 31 pairs
• 8 cervical
• (C1 to C8)
• 12 thoracic
• (T1 to T12)
• 5 lumbar
• (L1 to L5)
• 5 sacral
• (S1 to S5)
• 1 coccygeal
• (Co)
 Spinal Nerves
Dorsal root (posterior
or sensory root)
• axons of sensory
neurons in the
dorsal root
ganglion

Dorsal root ganglion

• cell bodies of sensory
neurons whose axons
conduct impulses inward
from peripheral body
parts
 Spinal Nerves
Ventral root (anterior or
motor root)
• axons of motor
neurons whose cell
bodies are in spinal
cord

Spinal nerve
• union of ventral root
and dorsal root
Dermatome
• an area of skin that the sensory nerve fibers of a
particular spinal nerve innervate
 Cervical Plexuses
Nerve plexus – complex networks formed by anterior branches
of spinal nerves; fibers of various spinal nerves are sorted and
recombined

Cervical Plexus
• formed by anterior
branches of C1-C4
• lies deep in the neck
• supply muscles and skin
of the neck
• C3 – C5 contribute to
phrenic nerves
 Brachial Plexuses
• C5-T1
• lies deep within shoulders
• musculocutaneous nerves
• supply muscles of anterior arms
and skin of forearms
• ulnar and median nerves
• supply muscles of forearms and
hands
• supply skin of hands
• radial nerves
• supply posterior muscles of arms
and skin of forearms and hands
• axillary nerves
• supply muscles and skin of
anterior, lateral, and posterior
arms
 Lumbosacral Plexuses
• T12 – S5

• extend from lumbar

region into pelvic cavity

• obturator nerves
• supply motor impulses to
adductors of thighs
• femoral nerves
• supply motor impulses to
muscles of anterior thigh
and sensory impulses
from skin of thighs and
legs
• sciatic nerves
• supply muscles and skin
of thighs, legs, and feet
Autonomic Nervous System

• functions without conscious effort

• controls visceral activities
• regulates smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands
• efferent fibers typically lead to ganglia outside CNS

Two Divisions
• sympathetic – prepares body for fight or flight
situations
• parasympathetic – prepares body for resting
and digesting activities
Autonomic Nervous System

These 2 systems are antagonistic.

Typically, we balance these 2 to keep ourselves in a
state of dynamic balance.
We’ll go further into the difference btwn these 2
later!
 Autonomic Nerve Fibers
• all neurons are motor
(efferent)

• preganglionic fibers
• axons of preganglionic
neurons
• neuron cell bodies in CNS

• postganglionic fibers
• axons of postganglionic
neurons
• neuron cell bodies in
ganglia
 Sympathetic Division
• thoracolumbar divison
– location of
preganglionic neurons
• preganglionic fibers leave
spinal nerves through
white rami and enter
paravertebral ganglia
• paraverterbral ganglia
and fibers that connect
them make up the
sympathetic trunk
 Sympathetic Division
• postganglionic fibers
extend from
sympathetic ganglia to
visceral organs
• postganglionic fibers
usually pass through gray
rami and return to a
spinal nerve before
proceeding to an effector

• Exception: preganglionic
fibers to adrenal medulla do
not synapse with
postganglionic neurons
Sympathetic
Division
 Parasympathetic Division
• craniosacral division – • preganglionic fibers of
location of the head are included in
preganglionic neurons nerves III, VII, and IX
• ganglia are near or
• preganglionic fibers of
within various
organs thorax and abdomen
• terminal ganglia are parts of nerve X
• short postganglionic
fibers
• continue to specific
muscles or glands
Parasympathetic Division
Sympathetic vs. Parasympathetic Effects:
• In the following tables, note the effects of the sympathetic
and parasympathetic nervous systems on various body
organs.
• Try to deduce why the divisions cause these particular
actions. What’s the point?
Target Organ Parasympathetic Sympathetic
Effects Effects
Cardiac Muscle Decreases HR. Increases HR and force of
contraction.

Coronary Blood Constricts. Dilates

Vessels
Urinary Bladder; Contracts bladder smooth Relaxes bladder smooth
muscle; relaxes urethral muscle; contracts urethral
Urethra sphincter. sphincter.
Lungs Contracts bronchiole Dilates bronchioles.
(small air passage)
smooth muscle.
Digestive Organs Increases peristalsis and Decreases glandular and
enzyme/mucus secretion. muscular activity.

Liver No innervation No innervation (indirect

effect).
Target Organ Parasympathetic Sympathetic
Effects Effects
Kidney No innervation. Releases the enzyme
renin which acts to
increase BP.
Penis Vasodilates penile Smooth muscle
arteries. Erection. contraction. Ejaculation.

Vagina; Clitoris Vasodilation. Erection. Vaginal reverse

peristalsis.

Blood Coagulation No effect. Increases coagulation

rate.

Cellular Metabolism No effect. Increases metabolic rate.

Adipose Tissue No effect. Stimulates fat breakdown.

Target Organ Parasympathetic Sympathetic
Effects Effects
Mental Activity No innervation. Increases alertness.

Blood Vessels Little effect. Constricts most blood

vessels and increases BP.
Exception – dilates blood
vessels serving skeletal
muscle fibers
(cholinergic).
Uterus Depends on stage of the Depends on stage of the
cycle. cycle.
Endocrine Pancreas Stimulates insulin Inhibits insulin secretion.
secretion.
 Autonomic Neurotransmitters
Cholinergic Fibers
• release acetylcholine
• preganglionic
sympathetic and
parasympathetic
fibers
• postganglionic
parasympathetic
fibers

Adrenergic Fibers
• release
norepinephrine
• most
postganglionic
sympathetic
fibers
Control of Autonomic
Activity
• Controlled largely by CNS

• Medulla oblongata regulates cardiac, vasomotor and

respiratory activities

• Hypothalamus regulates visceral functions, such as body

temperature, hunger, thirst, and water and electrolyte
balance

• Limbic system and cerebral cortex control emotional

responses
Life-Span Changes

• Brain cells begin to die before birth

• Over average lifetime, brain shrinks 10%
• Most cell death occurs in temporal lobes
• By age 90, frontal cortex has lost half its neurons
• Number of dendritic branches decreases
• Decreased levels of neurotransmitters
• Fading memory
• Slowed responses and reflexes
• Increased risk of falling
• Changes in sleep patterns that result in fewer sleeping hours
 Clinical Application
Cerebral Injuries and Abnormalities
Concussion Cerebral Palsy
• brain jarred against cranium • motor impairment at
• loss of consciousness birth
• temporary loss of memory • caused by blocked
• mental cloudiness cerebral blood vessels
• headache during development
• recovery usually complete • seizures
• learning disabilities
Cerebrovascular Accident
• stroke
• sudden interruption in blood
flow
• brain tissues die
end