An Autonomous Institute

THEORY OF VIBRATION – 18AE56

Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi,

Approved by AICTE, New Delhi,
Recognised by UGC with 2(f) & 12 ( B)
Module -1 ( Amogh Ballolli )
Accredited by NBA & NAAC 1
Bridge material

Fourier series (check for the link)

Basics and fundamental concepts
Introductory physics (Pendulum, Beat)
Basics and fundamental concepts about waves
Introductory Trigonometry functions
Sign conversation and trigonometric values

2
Module outline
Syllabus

3
Types of Vibrations

Undamped Free Vibration

Damped free vibration
Forced Vibration
Linear and non-linear
Deterministic and Random
Longitudinal, Transverse and torsional
Transient
 Mechanical vibration is the motion of a particle or body which oscillates
about a position of equilibrium. Most vibrations in machines and
structures are undesirable due to increased stresses and energy losses.
 Time interval required for a system to complete a full cycle of the motion
is the period of the vibration.
 Number of cycles per unit time defines the frequency of the vibrations.
 Maximum displacement of the system from the equilibrium position is
the amplitude of the vibration.
 When the motion is maintained by the restoring forces only, the
vibration is described as free vibration. When a periodic force is applied
to the system, the motion is described as forced vibration.
When the frictional dissipation of energy is neglected, the motion is said
to be undamped. Actually, all vibrations are damped to some degree.
 Fundamentals

• In simple terms, a vibratory system involves the transfer of

potential energy to kinetic energy and vice-versa in
alternating fashion.
• When there is a mechanism for dissipating energy
(damping) the oscillation gradually diminishes.
• In general, a vibratory system consists of three basic
components:
• A means of storing potential energy (spring, gravity)
• A means of storing kinetic energy (mass, inertial
component)
• A means to dissipate vibrational energy (damper)
 Fundamentals

• This can be observed with a pendulum:

• At position 1: the kinetic energy is zero and the potential energy is

mgl(1  cos  )

• At position 2: the kinetic

energy is at its
maximum
• At position 3: the kinetic
energy is again zero
and the potential energy
at its maximum.
• In this case the oscillation will
eventually stop due to
aerodynamic drag and pivot
friction  HEAT
Degree of Freedom?
• Studied in MMT?
• The minimum number of independent coordinates required to
determine completely the position of all parts of a system at any
instant of time defines the degree of freedom of the system.

Source: Gyfcat
 Degrees of Freedom

• The number of degrees of freedom : number of independent coordinates required to completely determine
the motion of all parts of the system at any time.
• Examples of single degree of freedom systems:
 Degrees of Freedom

• Examples of two degree of freedom systems:

 Degrees of Freedom

• Examples of three degree of freedom systems:

 Discrete and continuous systems

• Many practical systems small and large or structures can be describe with a finite number of DoF. These
are referred to as discrete or lumped parameter systems
• Some large structures (especially with continuous elastic elements) have an infinite number of DoF
These are referred to as continuous or distributed systems.

• In most cases, for practical reasons, continuous systems are approximated as discrete systems with
sufficiently large numbers lumped masses, springs and dampers. This equates to a large number of
degrees of freedom which affords better accuracy.
Free Vibrations of Particles. Simple Harmonic Motion
• If a particle is displaced through a distance xm from its
equilibrium position and released with no velocity, the
particle will undergo simple harmonic motion,
ma  F  W  k   st  x    kx
mx  kx  0
• General solution is the sum of two particular solutions,
 k   k 
x  C1 sin t   C 2 cos t 
 m   m 
 C1 sin  n t   C 2 cos  n t 
• x is a periodic function and wn is the natural circular
frequency of the motion.
• C1 and C2 are determined by the initial conditions:

x  C1 sin  n t   C 2 cos  n t  C 2  x0
v  x  C1 n cos  n t   C 2 n sin  n t  C1  v0  n
 Free Vibrations of Particles. Simple Harmonic Motion

v0
C1 
n
C 2  x0

 
• Displacement is equivalent to the x component of the sum of two vectors C1  C 2
which rotate with constant angular velocity n.
x  xm sin  n t    xm   v0  n  2  x02  amplitude

  tan 1  v0 x0 n   phase angle

2
n   period
n
1 n
fn    natural frequency
 n 2
19 - 14
Free Vibrations of Particles. Simple Harmonic Motion
• Velocity-time and acceleration-time curves can be
represented by sine curves of the same period as the
displacement-time curve but different phase angles.

x  xm sin  n t   
v  x
 xm n cos  n t   
 xm n sin  n t     2 
a  x
  xm n2 sin  n t   
 xm n2 sin  n t     

19 - 15
Simple Pendulum (Approximate Solution)
• Results obtained for the spring-mass system can be applied
whenever the resultant force on a particle is proportional
to the displacement and directed towards the equilibrium
position.
• Consider tangential components of acceleration and force
for a simple pendulum,
 Ft  mat :  W sin  ml
g
  sin  0
l

for small angles,

  g   0
l
   m sin  n t   
2 l
n   2
n g
19 - 16
 Simple Pendulum (Exact Solution)
g
An exact solution for   sin  0
l
l  2 d
leads to n  4 
g 0 1  sin 2  2  sin 2 
m

which requires numerical solution.

2K  l
n   2 
  g

19 - 17
 Superposition of Simple Harmonic Motions

Any periodic motion, regardless of its complexity, can be reduced to the sum of a
number of simple harmonic motions by the application of the superposition principle.
The resultant displacement of a particle at any time t is the vector sum of the separate
displacements of the various natural frequency motions

These component motions are the normal modes

of the system, and this analysis of
complex vibrations in terms of normal modes is an
example of Fourier analysis. For
example, a person's blood pressure is periodic and
may have a tracing. The curve is equivalent to the
sum of a number of simple harmonic motions.
Using modern computer assisted techniques, we
can analyze this curve into component parts. A
change in the relative contributions can be used in
the diagnosis of various heart conditions. Other
examples of periodic phenomena that may be used
in medical diagnoses are electrocardiograms,
respiration graphs, gastric motility tracings, and
ballistocardiograms.
 Beats Theorem

Beats is defined as the periodic variation in amplitude of sound at a given point due to
superposition of two sound waves having slightly different frequencies.
This phenomenon occurs because
the frequencies of both sound waves slightly different.
the phase difference change over time.
When the beats are occurred, a listener will hear a periodic rises and falls in loudness
(intensity) of the sound wave.
The phenomenon of beats can be used
to measure the unknown frequency of a note.
to “tune” an instrument to a given note.
 y

(a)
0 t
y
(b)
0 t
y Beat period (T)
A C

(c)
0 t
B D

Beat period (T)

A,C : Constructive interference
B,D : Destructive interference
• At point A and C, the two waves are shown to be in phase and interfere
constructively where the amplitude of the resultant wave is maximum
(increases in loudness of the sound).
• At point B and D, the two waves are shown to be anti-phase and
interfere destructively where the amplitude of the resultant wave is
minimum (decreases in loudness of the sound).
• Therefore the phenomenon of the increases and decreases in loudness
are periodic and is called beat.
• The equation of the beat frequency is given by

f b  f1  f 2 1 1
OR fb  
T2 T1
where f b : Beat frequency
f1 : frequency of the first source
f 2 : frequency of the second source
• If the beat frequency, fb = 3 Hz means that a listener would hear 3 beats
21
in one second.
 Introduction to Fourier Series

a0  a1 cos x 
f (x)

...  a2 cos 2 x 


...  a3 cos 3 x 

...

...  an cos nx   ...

 Fourier series
• A Fourier series is a convenient
representation of a periodic
function.
• A Fourier series consists of a sum
of sines and cosine terms.
• Sines and cosines are the most
fundamental periodic functions.
 Fourier series
• The formula for a Fourier series is:

n 
  2nx   2nx  
f ( x)  a0    an cos   bn sin   
n 1   T   T 
 Fourier series
• We have formulae for the
coefficients (for the derivations see
the course notes):
T
2
1
a0 
T  f ( x)dx
T

2

 2nx 
2
2
an 
T T f ( x ) cos 
 T 
dx

2
T

 2nx 
2
2
bn 
T T f ( x ) sin 
 T 
dx

2
Fourier series - Orthogonality
• One very important property of sines and
cosines is their orthogonality, expressed by:
T 0 nm
2
 2nx   2mx  
T sin  T  sin  T dx  T
  nm
2 2
T 0 nm
2
 2nx   2mx  
T cos T  cos T dx  T
  nm
2 2
T

 2nx   2mx 
2

T  T  sin  T dx  0 for all m, n

cos

2

These formulae are used in the derivation of the

formulae for an , bn
 Easy ways of finding Fourier
coefficients
• There are some easy shortcuts for
finding the Fourier coefficients.
• We can see that:
T
2
1
a0 
T  f ( x)dx
T

2

is just the area under the fundamental

range divided by the period.
 Summary of finding coefficients

function function function

even odd neither
T T
2 2
1 1
a0   f ( x)dx  0 a0   f ( x)dx  0
a0 T

T
2

Though maybe easy to find

0 T

T
2

Though maybe easy to find

using geometry using geometry

T T

 2nx 
0  2nx 
2 2
2 2
an an 
T  f ( x) cos

T T 
dx an 
T  f ( x) cos

T T 
dx
2 2

T T

bn 0  2nx   2nx 
2 2
2 2
bn 
T T f ( x) sin  T dx bn 
T  f ( x) sin 
T T 
dx
 
2 2
 Vibration Analysis

• Input (excitation) and output (response) are wrt time

• Response depend on initial conditions and external forces
• Most practical systems very complex – (mathematical) modelling requires simplification
• Procedure:
® Mathematical modelling
® Derivation / statement of governing equations
® Solving of equations for specific boundary conditions and external forces
® Interpretation of solution(s)
Vibration Analysis
 Spring Elements

• Pure spring element considered to have negligible mass and damping

• Force proportional to spring deflection (relative motion between ends):

F  k x
• For linear springs, the potential energy stored is:

2
U  12 k  x 

• Actual springs sometimes behave

in nonlinear fashion
• Important to recognize the
presence and significance
(magnitude) of nonlinearity
• Desirable to generate linear
estimate
 Spring Elements

• Equivalent spring constant.

• Eg: cantilever beam: Mass of beam assumed negligible cf lumped mass
• Deflection at free end:

mgl 3

3EI

• Stiffness (Force/defln):

mg 3EI
k  3
 l
• This procedure can be applied for various
geometries and boundary conditions. (see
appendix)
 Spring Elements

• Equivalent spring constant.

• Springs in parallel:

w =mg=k1δ  k2 δ
w=mg=keq
• where

keq =k1 + k2

• In general, for n springs in parallel:

i=n
keq =  ki
i=1
 Spring Elements

• Equivalent spring constant.

• Springs in series:

δt =δ1  δ2

• Both springs are subjected to the same

force:

mg  k1 1  k2 2

mg=keq t

• Combining the above equations:

k1 1  k2 2  keq t

keq t keq t
 1= and  2 =
k1 k2
 Spring Elements
• Springs in series (cont’d):

• Substituting into first eqn:

keq t keq t
t  
k1 k2
• Dividing by keqt throughout:

1 1 1
 
keq k1 k2

• For n springs in series:

1 i=n  1 
=  
keq i=1  ki 
 Spring Elements
• Equivalent spring constant.
• When springs are connected to rigid components such as pulleys and gears, the energy
equivalence principle must be used.

• Example:
 Mass / Inertia Elements
• Mass or inertia element assumed rigid (lumped
mass)
• Its energy (kinetic) is proportional to velocity.
• Force  mass * acceleration
• Work = force * displacement
• Work done on mass is stored as Kinetic Energy

• Modelling with lumped mass elements. Example:

assume frame mass is negligible cf mass of floors.
 Mass / Inertia Elements
• Equivalent mass - example:

• The velocities of the mass elements can be written as:

l2 l3
x2 = x1 and x3 = x1
l1 l1
• To determine the equivalent mass at position l1:

xeq = x1
 Mass / Inertia Elements
• Equivalent mass – example (cont’d)

• Equating the kinetic energies:

1 m x 2  1 m x 2  21 m3x32  12 meqxeq
2
2 1 1 2 2 2

• Substituting for the velocity terms:

2 2
l  l 
meq  m1   2  m2   3  m3
 l1   l1 
 Damping Elements
• Absorbs energy from vibratory system  vibration amplitude decays.
• Damping element considered to have no mass or elasticity
• Real damping systems very complex, damping modelled as:

• Viscous damping:
• Based on viscous fluid flowing through gap or orifice.
• Eg: film between sliding surfaces, flow b/w piston & cylinder, flow thru orifice, film around
journal bearing.
• Damping force  relative velocity between ends

• Coulomb (dry Friction) damping:

• Based on friction between unlubricated surfaces
• Damping force is constant and opposite the direction of motion
 Damping Elements

• Hysteretic (material or solid) damping:

• Based on plastic deformation of materials (energy loss due to slippage b/w grains)
• Energy lost due to hysteresis loop in force-deflection (stress-strain) curve of element when
load is applied:
M.C.Q
Which of the following is an “even” function of t ?
(A) 2 t (B) t 4t 2 − (C) sin(2t) + 3t (D) 6 3 t +

A “periodic function” is given by a function which

(A) has a period T = 2π
(B) satisfies f (t + T) = f (t)
(C) satisfies f (t + T) = − f (t)
(D) has a period T = π

The spring constant of a helical compression spring DOES NOT depend on

(A) coil diameter
(B) material strength
(C) number of active turns
(D) wire diameter
The equation of motion for a spring-mass system excited by a harmonic force is
Mx¨+Kx=Fcos(ωt),where M is the mass, K is the spring stiffness, F is the force amplitude and ω is the
angular frequency of excitation. Resonance occurs when ω is equal to
• (A) √ m/K
• (B) 12π√ K/M
• (C) 2π√ K/M
• (D) √ K/M
A mass m is attached to two identical springs having constant k as shown in the figure. The natural
frequency ω of this single degree of freedom system is
• (A) 2√k/m
• (B) √k/m
• (C) √ k/2m
• (D) √4km
Students are requested to share there answer here: https://bit.ly/3fXAI0F
University Questions
• Find out equation of motion for S. D. vibrating system (L-3)
• Show that two SHMs with frequency p and 2p when added will result
in a periodic function of frequency p. Generalize the above for a
number of harmonic functions with frequencies p, 2p…np (L-3)
• Explain expression for work done by a harmonic force. (L-2)
• Illustrate an example problem using both analytical and graphical
method(L-4)
 Case study :
Following work will help you understand type of vibration we encounter in our daily life
Each Machin has to undergo vibration unless it’s a static one.
http://drahmednagib.com/onewebmedia/Vibration_Analysis_Case_Stu
dies.pdf
Relative article : Vibration impulses at ear drum converted into
information.
https://www.britannica.com/science/ear/Transmission-of-sound-within
-the-inner-ear

Outcome: examples to understand vibration and its working.

Reference
• Mechanical Vibrations V.P. Singh Dhanpat Rai & Company Pvt. Ltd
2016
• VTU Question papers
https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1yfjwq0IJGQB6r6JBlOP9KqCP5
piYSitm?usp=sharing

• Theory of Vibration with Applications W.T. Thomson and Marie Dillon

Dahleh Pearson Education 5 th edition, 2008
• Theory of vibration by J.B.K DAS
NPTEL “MECHANICAL VIBRATION“
• https://nptel.ac.in/courses/112/103/112103112
• Info: course talks about single degree vibrating system and equation
of motion related to it
• Outcome: introducing the concept of vibration and their motion
related to mathematical model
/
Link
• (Beat phenomenon in vibration by MIT) youtube.com/watch?
v=I0YACDaY-ww
• Prerequisite for Four series
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vA9dfINW4Rg
• Trigonometry functions basics
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZlrT-nSHMLI
MVJ College of Engineering
Near ITPB, Whitefield
Bangalore-560 067
M: principalengg@mvjce.edu.in
Thank You
P: +91 80 4299 1040

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