UEEA 3773 2018 - Lecture 5

UNDERGROUND
CABLES
11/03/2020 CHAPTER 5
Chapter Outcome
2
 Upon completion of this chapter, students should

be able to:
 To illustrate types of insulating materials and types
of structure of an underground cable.
 To understand the components of a underground
cable system and methods for an underground cable
installation.
 To calculate the transmission line parameters for an
underground cable.
 To design the grading of an underground cable
 To apply the fault detection method for an
underground cable.
UEEA3773 Power Transmission and Distribution Dr. Lim Boon Han 11/03/2020
Contents
3
 Introduction to underground cables

 Insulating materials
 Classification of cables and cables of 3-phase
service: belted, screened and pressurized cables
 Laying the cables
 Resistance and capacitance of a single-core cable
 Dielectric stress in a single-core cable
Contents
4
 Most economical conductor size in a cable

 Grading of cables: capacitance grading and inter
sheath grading
 Capacitance in 3-core cable
 Current carrying capacity
 Cable faults and tests
Advantages of Underground Cable
5
 Less liable to damage

 Less chances of faults/service interruptions wind, ice,
lightning
 Low maintenance cost etc
 Smaller voltage drop
 Better appearance
 Longer useful life
 More public safety
 Less interference with communication circuits:
Overhead system causes EM interference with telephone
line.
Disadvantages of Underground Cable
6
 10 times more expensive

than overhead line
 Introduce insulation
problems at high voltages
 Less flexibility
 Difficult for fault location
and repairs
 Less current carrying
capacity
Applications of Underground
7
Cable
 Underground cables are employed where it is
impracticable to use overhead lines.
 locations may be thickly populated areas where
municipal authorities prohibit overhead lines for
reasons of safety,
 around plants and substations
 where maintenance conditions do not permit the use
of overhead construction.
Requirements for Underground Cable
8
a. Conductor: tinned stranded copper/aluminium of high

conductivity. Stranding is done so that conductor may become
flexible and carry more current.
b. Conductor size: carries the desired load current without
overheating and causes voltage drop within permissible limits.
c. Insulation thickness: able to give high degree of safety and
reliability at the designed voltage.
d. Mechanical protection: to withstand the rough use in laying it.
e. Materials: complete chemical and physical stability throughout
service life
Construction of Cables
9
 Core conductor:
 tinned Cu/Al
 Stranded
 one or more
 Insulation
 Metallic sheath:
 protect the cable from moisture, gases or other
damaging liquids (acids or alkalies) in the soil and
atmosphere
Construction of Cables
10
 Bedding
 consists of a fibrous material like jute or hessian tape
 protect metallic sheath against corrosion and from
 mechanical injury due to armouring
 Armouring
 consists of 1 or 2 layers of galvanised steel wire or steel tape
 protect cable from mechanical injury during laying
 may not be done in the case of some cables
 Serving
 protect armouring from atmospheric conditions
 a layer of fibrous material (like jute) similar to bedding
Classification of Cables
11
 Cables for underground service may be classified

in two ways according to
I. the voltage for which they are manufactured.
II. the type of insulating material used in their
manufacture
III. number of cores
IV. construction (for 3-phase services)
 However, the classification by voltage is
generally preferred, following with additional
specifications such as insulating materials,
number of cores and construction type.
Classification of Cables – by
12
voltage
1. Low-tension (L.T.) cables — up to 1000 V
2. High-tension (H.T.) cables — up to 11,000 V
3. Super-tension (S.T.) cables — from 22 kV to 33
kV
4. Extra high-tension (E.H.T.) cables — from 33 kV
to 66 kV
5. Extra super voltage cables — beyond 132 kV
Insulating Materials - Criteria
13
 High insulation resistance to avoid leakage current

 High dielectric strength to avoid electrical breakdown
 High mechanical strength to withstand the mechanical
handling of cables
 Non-hygroscopic, should not absorb moisture from
air or soil
 Non-inflammable
 Low cost
 Unaffected by acids and alkaline
Insulating Materials
14
 No one insulating material possesses all the above

mentioned properties.
 Therefore, the type of insulating material to be used
depends upon the purpose for which the cable is
required and the quality of insulation to be aimed at.
 The principal insulating materials used in cables are
rubber, vulcanised India rubber, impregnated paper,
varnished cambric, PVC, EPDM and XLPE.
Insulating Materials –
15
1. Rubber
 Rubber may be obtained from milky sap of tropical trees or it may
be produced from oil products.
 It has relative permittivity varying between 2 and 3, dielectric
strength is about 30 kV/mm and resistivity of insulation is 1017Ω
cm.
 Although pure rubber has reasonably high insulating properties, it
suffers form some major drawbacks:
 readily absorbs moisture,
 maximum safe temperature is low (about 38ºC),
 soft and liable to damage due to rough handling and ages when
exposed to light.
 Therefore, pure rubber cannot be used as an insulating material.
16
2. Vulcanised India Rubber (V.I.R.)
 It is prepared by mixing pure rubber with mineral matter
such as zine oxide, red lead etc., and 3 to 5% of sulphur.
 The compound so formed is rolled into thin sheets and
cut into strips.
 The rubber compound is then applied to the conductor
and is heated to a temperature of about 150ºC.
 The whole process is called vulcanisation and the
product obtained is known as vulcanised India rubber.
17
2. Vulcanised India Rubber (V.I.R.)
 Vulcanised India rubber has greater mechanical
strength, durability and wear resistant property
than pure rubber.
 Its main drawback is that sulphur reacts very
quickly with copper and for this reason, cables
using VIR insulation have tinned copper
conductor.
 The VIR insulation is generally used for low and
moderate voltage cables.
18
3. Impregnated Paper
 It consists of chemically pulped paper made from
wood chippings and impregnated with some
compound such as paraffinic or napthenic
material.
 This type of insulation has almost superseded the
rubber insulation.
 It is because it has the advantages of low cost, low
capacitance, high dielectric strength and high
insulation resistance.
19
 The only disadvantage is that paper is hygroscopic
and even if it is impregnated with suitable
compound, it absorbs moisture and thus lowers the
insulation resistance of the cable.
 For this reason, paper insulated cables are always
provided with some protective covering and are
never left unsealed.
 If it is required to be left unused on the site during
laying, its ends are temporarily covered with wax or
tar.
20
 Since the paper insulated cables have the tendency

to absorb moisture, they are used where the cable
route has a few joints.
 For instance, they can be profitably used for
distribution at low voltages in congested areas
where the joints are generally provided only at the
terminal apparatus.
 However, for smaller installations, where the length
are small and joints are required at a number of
places, VIR cables will be cheaper and durable than
paper insulated cables.
4. Varnished Cambric
21
 It is a cotton cloth impregnated and coated with varnish.

This type of insulation is also known as empire tape.
 The cambric is lapped on to the conductor in the form of
a tape and its surfaces are coated with petroleum jelly
compound to allow for the sliding of one turn over
another as the cable is bent.
 As the varnished cambric is hygroscopic, therefore, such
cables are always provided with metallic sheath.
 Its dielectric strength is about 4 kV/mm and permittivity
is 2.5 to 3.8.
5. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
22
 This insulating material is a synthetic compound.

 It is obtained from the polymerisation of acetylene
and is in the form of white powder.
 For obtaining this material as a cable insulation, it is
compounded with certain materials known as
plasticizers which are liquids with high boiling
point.
 The plasticizer forms a gel and renders the material
plastic over the desired range of temperature.
5. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
23
 Polyvinyl chloride has high insulation resistance, good

dielectric strength and mechanical toughness over a wide
range of temperatures.
 It is inert to oxygen and almost inert to many alkaline and
acids.
 Therefore, this type of insulation is preferred over VIR in
extreme environmental conditions such as in cement factory
or chemical factory.
 As the mechanical properties (i.e., elasticity etc.) of PVC are
not so good as those of rubber, therefore, PVC insulated
cables are generally used for low and medium domestic
lights and power installations.
24
6. EPDM Rubber
 EPDM rubber (ethylene propylene diene monomer (M-class)
rubber), a type of synthetic rubber.
 EPDM exhibits satisfactory compatibility with fireproof
hydraulic fluids, ketones, hot and cold water, and alkalis, and
unsatisfactory compatibility with most oils, gasoline,
kerosene, aromatic and aliphatic hydrocarbons, halogenated
solvents and concentrated acids.
 The main properties of EPDM are its outstanding heat, ozone
and weather resistance. The resistance to polar substances
and steam are also good. It has excellent electrical insulating
properties.
o
 EPDM can stand up to 150 C.
25
6. EPDM Rubber
 EPDM exhibits:
 Excellent flexibility to
ease installation in narrow
or winding pathways even
in cold conditions
 Inherent water-treeing
resistance for long service
life
 Excellent wet electrical
properties
 Fast cure rates for higher
line speeds
26
6. EPDM Rubber
 With these characteristics, EPDM is well
suited for use in:
 Medium-and low-voltage insulation for power cables
 Halogen-free cable jackets
 Molded connectors
 Cable fillers
27
7. Cross-linked Polyethylene (XLPE)
 XLPE is widely used as electrical insulation
in power cables of all voltage ranges but it is
especially well suited to medium voltage
applications.
 It is the most common polymeric insulation
material
 XLPE-insulated cables have a rated maximum
conductor temperature of 90 °C and an
emergency rating up to 140 °C, depending on the
standard used. They have a conductor short-
circuit rating of 250 °C.
28
7. Cross-linked Polyethylene (XLPE)
 XLPE has excellent dielectric properties, making it useful
for medium voltage—10 to 50 kV AC, and high voltage
cables—up to 380 kV AC-voltage, and several hundred kV
DC.
 XLPE insulations can be modified to limit the amount of by-
product gases generated during the cross-linking process.
This is particularly useful for high voltage cable and extra-
high voltage cable applications, where degassing
requirements can significantly lengthen cable manufacturing
time.
Insulating Materials – Evolution
29
 Most high-voltage cables for power transmission that are

currently sold on the market are insulated by a sheath of
XLPE.
 Some cables may have a lead or aluminum jacket in
conjunction with XLPE insulation to allow for fiber optics.
 Before 1960, underground power cables were insulated with
oil and paper and ran in a rigid steel pipe, or a semi-rigid
aluminum or lead jacket or sheath. The oil was kept under
pressure to prevent formation of voids that would
allow partial discharges within the cable insulation. There
are still many of these oil-and-paper insulated cables in use
worldwide.
Insulating Materials – Evolution
30
 Between 1960 and 1990, polymers became

more widely used at distribution voltages,
mostly EPDM (ethylene propylene diene M-
class); however, their relative unreliability,
particularly early XLPE, resulted in a slow
uptake at transmission voltages. While cables
of 330 kV are commonly constructed using
XLPE, this has occurred only in recent
decades.
Classification of Cables – no. of
31
cores
 A cable may have one or more than one core
depending upon the type of service for which it is
intended.
I. single-core
II. two-core
III. three-core
IV. four-core etc.
 For a 3-phase service, either 3-single-core cables or
three-core cable can be used depending upon the
operating voltage and load demand.
Single-core cable
32
 Figure shows the constructional

details of a single-core low
tension cable.
 The cable has ordinary
construction because the stresses
developed in the cable for low
voltages (up to 6600 V) are
generally small.
 It consists of one circular core of
tinned stranded copper (or
aluminium) insulated by layers of
impregnated paper.
Single-core cable
33
 The insulation is surrounded by a lead sheath which

prevents the entry of moisture into the inner parts.
 In order to protect the lead sheath from corrosion, an
overall serving of compounded fibrous material (jute
etc.) is provided.
 Single-core cables are not usually armoured in order
to avoid excessive sheath losses.
 The principal advantages of single-core cables are
simple construction and availability of larger copper
section.
Cables for 3-Phase Service
34
 In practice, underground cables are generally

required to deliver 3-phase power.
 For the purpose, either three-core cable or three
single core cables may be used.
 For voltages up to 66 kV, 3-core cable is preferred
due to economic reasons.
 However, for voltages beyond 66 kV, 3-core-
cables become too large and unwieldy and,
therefore, single-core cables are used.
Cables for 3-Phase Service
35
 The following types of cables are generally

used for 3-phase service:
1. Belted cables – up to 11 kV
Solid
types
2. Screened cables – from 22 kV to 66 kV
Oil or gas
3. Pressure cables – beyond 66 kV
1. Belted Cables
36
 These cables are used

for voltages up to
11kV but in
extraordinary cases,
their use may be
extended up to 22kV.
 Fig. 11.3 shows the
constructional details
of a 3-core belted
cable.
1. Belted Cables
37
 The cores are insulated from each other by layers of

impregnated paper.
 Another layer of impregnated paper tape, called paper belt
is wound round the grouped insulated cores.
 The gap between the insulated cores is filled with fibrous
insulating material so as to give circular cross-section to
the cable.
 The cores are generally stranded and may be of
noncircular shape to make better use of available space.
 The belt is covered with lead sheath to protect the cable
against ingress of moisture and mechanical injury.
1. Belted Cables
38
 The lead sheath is covered with one or more layers

of armouring with an outer serving
 The belted type construction is suitable only for
low and medium voltages as the electrostatic
stresses developed in the cables for these voltages
are more or less radial i.e., across the insulation.
 However, for high voltages (beyond 22 kV), the
tangential stresses also become important.
 These stresses act along the layers of paper
insulation.
1. Belted Cables
39
 As the insulation resistance of paper is quite small

along the layers, therefore, tangential stresses set
up leakage current along the layers of paper
insulation.
 The leakage current causes local heating,
resulting in the risk of breakdown of insulation
at any moment.
 In order to overcome this difficulty, screened
cables are used where leakage currents are
conducted to earth through metallic screens.
2. Screened Cables.
40
 These cables are meant for use up to 33

kV, but in particular cases their use may
be extended to operating voltages up to
66 kV.
 Two principal types of screened cables
are:
 H-type cables
 S.L. type cables.
2. Screen Cables – (i) H-type cables
41
 Name after the first designer H. Hochstadter and

hence the name.
 The constructional details of a typical 3-core, H-
type cable.:
42
 Each core is insulated by layers of impregnated

paper.
 The insulation on each core is covered with a
metallic screen which usually consists of a perforated
aluminum foil.
 The cores are laid in such a way that metallic
screens make contact with one another.
 An additional conducting belt (copper woven fabric
tape) is wrapped round the three cores.
 The cable has no insulating belt but lead sheath,
bedding, armouring and serving follow
UEEA3773 Power Transmission and Distribution
as usual.
Dr. Lim Boon Han 11/03/2020
43
 It is easy to see that each core screen is in electrical

contact with the conducting belt and the lead sheath.
 As all the four screens (3 core screens and one
conducting belt) and the lead sheath are at earth
potential, therefore, the electrical stresses are purely
radial and consequently dielectric losses are reduced.
44
 Two principal advantages:

 Firstly, the perforations in the metallic screens
assist in the complete impregnation of the
cable with the compound and thus the possibility
of air pockets or voids (vacuous spaces) in the
dielectric is eliminated. The voids if present tend
to reduce the breakdown strength of the cable
and may cause considerable damage to the paper
insulation.
 Secondly, the metallic screens increase the heat
dissipating power of the cable.
2. Screen Cables – (ii) S.L. type cables
45
 Fig. 11.5 shows the

constructional details
of a 3-core S.L.
(separate lead) type
cable.
 It is basically H-type
cable but the screen
round each core
insulation is covered
by its own lead
sheath.
2. Screen Cables – (ii) S.L. type cables
46
 There is no overall lead sheath but only armouring

and serving are provided.
 The S.L. type cables have two main advantages over H-
type cables.
 Firstly, the separate sheaths minimise the possibility of
core-to-core breakdown.
 Secondly, bending of cables becomes easy due to the
elimination of overall lead sheath.
 However, the disadvantage is that the three lead sheaths
of S.L. cable are much thinner than the single sheath of
H-cable and, therefore, call for greater care in
manufacture.
Limitations of Solid Type Cables
47
 All the cables of above construction are referred to

as solid type cables because solid insulation is
used and no gas or oil circulates in the cable
sheath.
 The voltage limit for solid type cables is 66 kV
due to the following reasons :
a) As a solid cable carries the load, its conductor
temperature increases and the cable compound
expands. This action stretches the lead sheath which
may be damaged.
48
b) When the load on the cable decreases, the conductor

cools and a partial vacuum is formed within the cable
sheath. If the pinholes are present in the lead sheath,
moist air may be drawn into the cable. The moisture
reduces the dielectric strength of insulation and may
eventually cause the breakdown of the cable.
c) In practice, voids* are always present in the insulation
of a cable. Modern techniques of manufacturing have
resulted in void free cables. However, under operating
conditions, the voids are formed as a result of the
differential expansion and contraction of the sheath and
impregnated compound.
49
The breakdown strength of voids is considerably less

than that of the insulation.
If the void is small enough, the electrostatic stress
across it may cause its breakdown.
The voids nearest to the conductor are the first to
break down, the chemical and thermal effects of
ionization causing permanent damage to the paper
insulation.
*Voids are unintentional spaces in the insulation of cable filled with air or gas,
usually at low pressure
3. Pressure cables
50
 For voltages beyond 66 kV, solid type cables are

unreliable because there is a danger of breakdown
of insulation due to the presence of voids.
 When the operating voltages are greater than 66
kV, pressure cables are used.
 In such cables, voids are eliminated by increasing
the pressure of compound and for this reason they
are called pressure cables.
 Two types of pressure cables, namely oil-filled
cables and gas pressure cables are commonly
used.
3. Pressure cables – (i) Oil-filled cables
51
 In such types of cables, channels or ducts are

provided in the cable for oil circulation.
 The oil under pressure (it is the same oil used for
impregnation) is kept constantly supplied to the
channel by means of external reservoirs placed at
suitable distances (say 500 m) along the route of the
cable.
 Oil under pressure compresses the layers of paper
insulation and is forced into any voids that may have
formed between the layers.
52
 Due to the elimination of voids, oil-filled cables

can be used for higher voltages, the range being
from 66 kV upto 230 kV.
 Oil-filled cables are of three types viz., single-core
conductor channel, single-core sheath channel
and three-core filler-space channels.
53
a) Single-core conductor channel, oil filled cable
54
 The oil channel is formed at the centre by stranding

the conductor wire around a hollow cylindrical steel
spiral tape.
 The oil under pressure is supplied to the channel by
means of external reservoir.
 As the channel is made of spiral steel tape, it allows
the oil to percolate between copper strands to the
wrapped insulation.
 The oil pressure compresses the layers of paper
insulation and prevents the possibility of void
formation.
55
 The system is so designed that when the oil gets

expanded due to increase in cable temperature, the
extra oil collects in the reservoir.
 However, when the cable temperature falls during
light load conditions, the oil from the reservoir
flows to the channel.
 The disadvantage of this type of cable is that the
channel is at the middle of the cable and is at full
voltage w.r.t. earth, so that a very complicated
system of joints is necessary.
56
b) Single-core sheath
channel oil-filled
cable
 In this type of cable,
the conductor is solid
similar to that of solid
cable and is paper
insulated.
 However, oil ducts are
provided in the
metallic sheath as
shown.
57
c) 3-core filler-space
channels
 The oil ducts are
located in the filler
spaces.
 These channels are
composed of
perforated metal-
ribbon tubing and
are at earth potential.
58
 The oil-filled cables have three principal

advantages:
1. Formation of voids and ionization are avoided.
2. Allowable temperature range and dielectric strength
are increased.
3. If there is leakage, the defect in the lead sheath is at
once indicated and the possibility of earth faults is
decreased.
 However, their major disadvantages are the high
initial cost and complicated system of laying.
3. Pressure cables – (ii) Gas pressure
59
cables
 The voltage required to set up ionization inside a
void increases as the pressure is increased.
 Therefore, if ordinary cable is subjected to a
sufficiently high pressure, the ionization can be
altogether eliminated.
 At the same time, the increased pressure produces
radial compression which tends to close any voids.
 This is the underlying principle of gas pressure
cables.
60
cables
 Fig. 11.9 shows the section
of external pressure cable
designed by Hochstadter,
Vogal and Bowden.
 The construction of the
cable is similar to that of an
ordinary solid type except
that it is of triangular shape
and thickness of lead sheath
is 75% that of solid cable.
61
cables
 The triangular section reduces the weight and gives
low thermal resistance but the main reason for
triangular shape is that the lead sheath acts as a
pressure membrane.
 The sheath is protected by a thin metal tape.
 The cable is laid in a gas-tight steel pipe. The pipe is
filled with dry nitrogen gas at 12 to 15 atmospheres.
 The gas pressure produces radial compression and
closes the voids that may have formed between the
layers of paper insulation.
62
cables
 Such cables can carry more load current and
operate at higher voltages than a normal cable.
 Moreover, maintenance cost is small and the
nitrogen gas helps in quenching any flame.
 However, it has the disadvantage that the overall
cost is very high.
Examples – Liquid-Filled
63
Examples
64
Examples – Single Core and 3-Core
65
XLPE
Examples – H type XLPE
66
Examples – H type with XLPE
67
 XLPE – CROSS
LINKED
POLYETHYLENE
Examples – H type
68
A cross-section
through a 400 kV
cable, showing the
stranded segmented
copper conductor in
the center,
semiconducting and
insulating layers,
copper shield
conductors, aluminum
sheath and plastic
outer jacket.
Examples – H type with XLPE
69
Ancillary Facilities
70
 Different types of cables require different ancillary

facilities. Some of these facilities are constructed
underground, while others are aboveground and
may have a significant footprint.
 When assessing the impacts of underground
transmission line construction and operation, the
impacts of the ancillary facilities must be
considered as well.
Ancillary Facilities – Vault
71
 Vaults are large concrete boxes buried at regular intervals

along the underground construction route.
 The primary function of the vault is for splicing the cables
during construction and for permanent access, maintenance,
and repair of the cables.
 The number of vaults required for an underground
transmission line is dictated by the maximum length of cable
that can be transported on a reel, the cable’s allowable
pulling tension, elevation changes along the route, and the
sidewall pressure as the cable goes around bends.
 XLPE cable requires a splice every 900 to 2000 feet,
depending on topography and voltage. Pipe-type cables need
a splice at least
UEEA3773 Powerevery 3,500
Transmission and feet.
Distribution Dr. Lim Boon Han 11/03/2020
Vault Construction
72
Installation - Vault Construction
73
 Vaults are approximately 10 by 30 feet and 10 feet high.

 They have two chimneys constructed with manholes which
workmen use to enter the vaults for cable maintenance.
Covers for the manholes are designed to be flush with the
finished road surface or ground elevation.
 Vaults can be either prefabricated and transported to the site
in two pieces or constructed onsite.
 Excavations in the vicinity of the vaults will be deeper and
wider.
 Higher voltage construction may require two vaults
constructed adjacent to each other to handle the redundant
set of cables.
Ancillary Facilities – Transition
74
Structures
 For underground cables less than 345 kV, the connection
from overhead to underground lines require the
construction of a transition structure, also known as a
riser.
 These structures are between 60 and 100 feet tall. They
are designed so that the three conductors are effectively
separated and meet electric code requirements.
 The insulated conductor of the overhead line is linked
through a solid insulator device to the underground
cable. This keeps moisture out of the cable and the
overhead line away from the supporting structure.
75
Structures
76
Structures
 Lightning arrestors are placed close to where the
underground cable connects to the overhead line
to protect the underground cable from nearby
lightning strikes.
 The insulating material is very sensitive to large
voltage changes and cannot be repaired. If
damaged, a completely new cable is installed.
77
78
Stations
 High voltage (345 kV or greater) underground transmission
lines require transition stations wherever the underground
cable connects to overhead transmission.
 For very lengthy sections of underground transmission,
intermediate transition stations might be necessary.
 The appearance of a 345 kV transition station is similar to
that of a small switching station. The size is governed by
whether reactors or other additional components are
required. They range in size from approximately 1 to 2 acres.
Transition stations also require grading, access roads, and
storm water management facilities.
79
Stations
Ancillary Facilities – Pressurizing
80
Sources
 For High pressure fluid filled systems, a
pressurizing plant maintains fluid pressure in the
pipe. The number of pressurizing plants depends on
the length of the underground lines. It may be
located within a substation. It includes a reservoir
that holds reserve fluid.
 An High pressure gas-filled system does not use a
pressurizing plant, but rather a regulator and
nitrogen cylinder. These are located in a gas-cabinet
that contains high-pressure and low-pressure alarms
and a regulator.
Construction of Underground
81
Transmission
 Installation of an underground transmission cable
generally involves the following sequence of
events:
1. Right-of-Way clearing,
2. trenching/blasting,
3. laying and/or welding pipe,
4. duct bank and vault installation,
5. backfilling,
6. cable installation,
7. adding fluids or gas, and
8. site restoration.
Construction of Underground
82
Transmission
Conduit Assembly for XLPE
83
Cables
Installation - Cable Pulling
84
Laying of Underground Cables
85
 The reliability of underground cable network

depends to a considerable extent upon the proper
laying and attachment of fittings i.e., cable end
boxes, joints, branch connectors etc.
 There are three main methods of laying
underground cables, namely :
 direct laying,
 draw-in system and
 the solid system
1. Direct Laying
86
 Simple and cheap. Much

favoured in modern practice.
 A trench of about 1·5 metres
deep and 45 cm wide is dug.
 The trench is covered with a
layer of fine sand (of about 10
cm thickness) and the cable is
laid over this sand bed.
 The sand prevents the entry of
moisture from the ground and
thus protects the cable from
decay.
1. Direct Laying
87
 After the cable has been laid in the trench, it is covered

with another layer of sand of about 10 cm thickness.
 The trench is then covered with bricks and other
materials in order to protect the cable from mechanical
injury.
 When more than one cable is to be laid in the same
trench, a horizontal or vertical inter-axial spacing of at
least 30 cm is provided in order to reduce the effect of
mutual heating and also to ensure that a fault occurring
on one cable does not damage the adjacent cable.
1. Direct Laying
88
 Cables to be laid in this way must have

serving of bituminized paper and hessian tape
so as to provide protection against corrosion
and electrolysis
 This method of laying cables is used in open

areas where excavation can be done
conveniently and at low cost.
1. Direct Laying – Advantages
89
1. It is a simple and less costly method.
2. It gives the best conditions for dissipating the

heat generated in the cables.
3. It is a clean and safe method as the cable is

invisible and free from external disturbances.
1. Direct Laying – Disadvantages
90
1. The extension of load is possible only by a

completely new excavation which may cost
as much as the original work.
2. The alterations in the cable network cannot
be made easily.
3. The maintenance cost is very high.
4. Localisation of fault is difficult.
5. It cannot be used in congested areas where
excavation is expensive and inconvenient
2. Draw-in System
91
 In this method, conduit or duct

of glazed stone or cast iron or
concrete are laid in the ground
with manholes at suitable
positions along the cable route.
The cables are then pulled into
position from manholes.
 Fig. 11.11 shows section through four-way underground

duct line.
 Three of the ducts carry transmission cables and the
fourth duct carries relay protection connection, pilot
wires.UEEA3773 Power Transmission and Distribution Dr. Lim Boon Han 11/03/2020
2. Draw-in System
92
 Care must be taken that where the duct line changes

direction ; depths, dips and offsets be made with a
very long radius or it will be difficult to pull a large
cable between the manholes.
 The distance between the manholes should not be
too long so as to simplify the pulling in of the
cables.
 The cables to be laid in this way need not be
armoured but must be provided with serving of
hessian and jute in order to protect them when being
pulled into the ducts.
2. Draw-in System – Advantages
93
1. Repairs, alterations or additions to the cable

network can be made without opening the
ground.
2. As the cables are not armoured, therefore,
joints become simpler and maintenance cost
is reduced considerably.
3. There are very less chances of fault
occurrence due to strong mechanical
protection provided by the system.
2. Draw-in System – Disadvantages
94
1. The initial cost is very high.
2. The current carrying capacity of the cables is

reduced due to the close grouping of cables
and unfavourable conditions for dissipation
of heat.
2. Draw-in System
95
 This method of cable laying is suitable for

congested areas where excavation is expensive
and inconvenient, for once the conduits have
been laid, repairs or alterations can be made
without opening the ground.
 This method is generally used for short length
cable routes such as in workshops, road crossings
where frequent digging is costlier or impossible.
3. Solid System
96
 In this method of laying, the cable is laid in open pipes

or troughs dug out in earth along the cable route.
 The troughing is of cast iron, stoneware, asphalt or
treated wood.
 After the cable is laid in position, the troughing is
filled with a bituminous or asphaltic compound and
covered over.
 Cables laid in this manner are usually plain lead
covered because troughing affords good mechanical
protection.
3. Solid System – Disadvantages
97
1. It is more expensive than direct laid system.

2. It requires skilled labour and favourable
weather conditions.
3. Due to poor heat dissipation facilities, the
current carrying capacity of the cable is
reduced.
 In view of these disadvantages, this method
of laying underground cables is rarely used

nowadays
Underground Operating
98
Considerations
 Cable Repairs
 Potential Fluid Leaks
 Electric and Magnetic Fields
 Underground transmission lines produce lower
magnetic fields than aboveground lines because the
underground conductors are placed closer together
which causes the magnetic fields created by each of
the three conductors to cancel out some of the
other’s fields. This results in reduced magnetic
fields.
 Heat
Insulation Resistance of a Single-Core Cable
99
 The cable is provided with a suitable thickness of

insulating material in order to prevent leakage
current
 The path for leakage current is radial through the
insulation
 The opposition offered by insulation to leakage
current is known as insulation resistance of the
cable
Insulation Resistance of a Single-Core
100
Cable
 Consider a single-core cable
of conductor radius r1 and
internal sheath radius r2 as
shown, with the length of
the cable l and ρ be the
resistivity of the insulation
 Consider a very small layer of insulation of thickness dx at
a radius x
 The length through which leakage current tends to flow is
dx and the area of cross-section offered to this flow is 2πxl
Insulation Resistance of a Single-Core Cable
101
Example
102
Example
103
11/03/2020
Capacitance of a Single-Core Cable
104
 A single-core cable can be

considered to be equivalent to
two long co-axial cylinders.
 The conductor (or core) of the
cable is the inner cylinder while
the outer cylinder is represented
by lead sheath which is at earth
potential.
 Consider a single core cable with
conductor diameter d and inner
sheath diameter D
105
 Let the charge per metre axial length of the cable be Q

coulombs and ε be the permittivity of the insulation
material between core and lead sheath.
 Obviously ε = ε0εr where εr is the relative permittivity
of the insulation.
 Consider a cylinder of radius x metres and axial length

1 metres,
The surface area of this cylinder is = 2πx × 1 = 2πx
m2
106
 The work done in moving a unit positive charge from point

P through a distance dx in the direction of electric field is Ex
dx. Hence, the work done in moving a unit positive charge
from conductor to sheath, which is the potential difference
V between conductor and sheath, is given by :
107
Example
108
 A single core cable has a conductor diameter of 1

cm and internal sheath diameter of 1·8 cm. If
impregnated paper of relative permittivity 4 is
used as the insulation, calculate the capacitance
for 1 km length of the cable.
Dielectric Stress in a Single-Core Cable
109
 Under operating conditions,

the insulation of a cable is
subjected to electrostatic
forces. This is known as
dielectric stress.
 The dielectric stress at any
point in a cable is in fact the
potential gradient (or electric
intensity) at that point.
Dielectric Stress in a Single-Core
110
Cable
 Consider a single core cable with core diameter d
and internal sheath diameter D. The electric
intensity at a point x metres from the centre of the
cable is
 By definition, electric intensity is equal to

potential gradient. Therefore, potential gradient g
at a point x metres from the centre of cable is:
111
Cable
 Potential difference V between conductor and
sheath is (means Vphase):
112
Cable
 Potential gradient varies inversely as the distance
x.
 Potential gradient will be maximum when x is
minimum i.e., when x = d/2 or at the surface of the
conductor.
 On the other hand, potential gradient will be
minimum at x = D/2 or at sheath surface.
113
Cable
V is
phase
voltage
114
Cable
 Dielectric stress is maximum at the conductor
surface and its value goes on decreasing as we move
away from the conductor.
 Maximum stress is an important consideration in the
design of a cable.
 For instance, if a cable is to be operated at such a
voltage that maximum stress is 5 kV/mm, then the
insulation used must have a dielectric strength of at
least 5 kV/mm, otherwise breakdown of the cable
will become inevitable.
Example
115
 A 33 kV (VL-L) single core cable has a conductor

diameter of 1 cm and a sheath of inside diameter 4
cm. Find the maximum and minimum stress in the
insulation.
Solution
116
V= 33/1.732=19.05
19.05
27.49
19.05
6.87
27.49 6.87
Example
117
 The maximum and minimum stresses in the

dielectric of a single core cable are 40 kV/cm
(r.m.s.) and 10 kV/cm (r.m.s.) respectively. If the
conductor diameter is 2 cm, find :
i. thickness of insulation
ii. operating voltage
Solution
118
Notes: If gmax and gmin are not given in r.m.s or not mentioned in r.m.s, then consider
they are in peak value. For that, V should be further divided by 1.414
Most Economical Conductor Size in a Cable
119
 From the equation of maximum stress,
 the values of working voltage V and internal

sheath diameter D have to be kept fixed at certain
values due to design considerations. This leaves
conductor diameter d to be the only variable
 For given values of V and D, the most economical
conductor diameter will be one for which gmax has
a minimum value. The value of gmax will be
minimum when dlogeD/d is maximum i.e.:
120
121
 For low and medium voltage cables, the value of

conductor diameter arrived at by this method (i.e.,
d= 2V/gmax) is often too small from the point of
view of current density. Therefore, the conductor
diameter of such cables is determined from the
consideration of safe current density.
 For high voltage cables, designs based on this
theory give a very high value of d, much too large
from the point of view of current carrying capacity
and it is, therefore, advantageous to increase the
conductor diameter to this value.
122
 There are three ways of doing this without

using excessive copper :
i. Using aluminium instead of copper because for
the same current, diameter of aluminium will be
more than that of copper.
ii. Using copper wires stranded round a central
core of hemp.
iii. Using a central lead tube instead of hemp ( 麻 ).
Grading of Cables
123
 The process of achieving uniform electrostatic stress in the

dielectric of cables is known as grading of cables
 It has already been shown that electrostatic stress in a
single core cable has a maximum value (gmax) at the
conductor surface and goes on decreasing as we move
towards the sheath.
 The maximum voltage that can be safely applied to a cable
depends upon gmax i.e., electrostatic stress at the conductor
surface.
 For safe working of a cable having homogeneous
dielectric, the strength of dielectric must be more than
gmax .
Grading of Cables
124
 If a dielectric of high strength is used for a cable,

it is useful only near the conductor where stress is
maximum.
 But as we move away from the conductor, the
electrostatic stress decreases, so the dielectric will
be unnecessarily over strong.
 The unequal stress distribution in a cable is
undesirable for two reasons.
 Firstly, insulation of greater thickness is required which
increases the cable size.
 Secondly, it may lead to the breakdown of insulation.
Grading of Cables
125
 In order to overcome above disadvantages, it is

necessary to have a uniform stress distribution in
cables.
 This can be achieved by distributing the stress in
such a way that its value is increased in the outer
layers of dielectric.
 This is known as grading of cables.
 Two main methods of grading of cables :
 Capacitance grading
 Intersheath grading
Grading of Cables – Capacitance Grading
126
 The process of achieving uniformity in the

dielectric stress by using layers of different
dielectrics is known as capacitance grading.
 In capacitance grading, the homogeneous
dielectric is replaced by a composite dielectric.
The composite dielectric consists of various
layers of different dielectrics in such a manner
that relative permittivity εr of any layer is
inversely proportional to its distance from the
centre.
127
 Under such conditions, the value of potential

gradient at any point in the dieletric is *constant
and is independent of its distance from the centre.
In other words, the dielectric stress in the cable is
same everywhere and the grading is ideal one.
128
 However, ideal grading requires the use of an

infinite number of dielectrics which is an
impossible task. In practice, two or three
dielectrics are used in the decreasing order of
permittivity; the dielectric of highest permittivity
being used near the core.
 The principal disadvantage of this method is that
there are a few high grade dielectrics of
reasonable cost whose permittivities vary over the
required range.
129
 By referring to Fig. 11.15.

There are three dielectrics of
outer diameter d1 , d2 and D and
of relative permittivity ε1, ε2 and
ε3 respectively.
 If the permittivities are such that
ε1 >ε2 >ε3 and the three
dielectrics are worked at the
same maximum stress, then
130
 Potential difference across the inner layer is
131
V is
phase
voltage
Potential
difference
132
 Obviously, V > V′ i.e., for given dimensions of the

cable, a graded cable can be worked at a greater
potential than non-graded cable. Alternatively, for
the same safe potential, the size of graded cable will
be less than that of non-graded cable. The following
points may be noted :
 As the permissible values of gmax are peak values,
therefore, all the voltages in above expressions should be
taken as peak values and not the r.m.s. values.
 If the maximum stress in the three dielectrics is not the
same, then,
133
134
Grading of Cables – Intersheath Grading
135
 In this method of cable grading, a homogeneous

dielectric is used, but it is divided into various
layers by placing metallic intersheaths between
the core and lead sheath. The intersheaths are held
at suitable potentials which are in between the
core potential and earth potential.
 This arrangement improves voltage distribution in
the dielectric of the cable and consequently more
uniform potential gradient is obtained.
136
 Consider a cable of core diameter d and

outer lead sheath of diameter D.
Suppose that two intersheaths of
diameters d1 and d2 are inserted into the
homogeneous dielectric and maintained
at some fixed potentials. Let V1, V2 and
V3 respectively be the voltage between
core and intersheath 1, between
intersheath 1 and 2 and between
intersheath 2 and outer lead sheath. As
there is a definite potential difference
between the inner and outer layers of
each intersheath, therefore, each sheath
can be treated like a homogeneous
single core cable
137
138
 Intersheath grading has three principal disadvantages.

 There are complications in fixing the sheath potentials.
 The intersheaths are likely to be damaged during transportation and
installation which might result in local concentrations of potential
gradient.
 There are considerable losses in the intersheaths due to charging
currents.
 For these reasons, intersheath grading is rarely used.
Capacitance of 3-Core Cables
139
 The capacitance of a cable system is much more

important than that of overhead line because in
cables:
 conductors are nearer to each other and to the earthed
sheath
 they are separated by a dielectric of permittivity
much greater than that of air.
140
 Figure shows a system of

capacitances in a 3-core belted
cable used for 3-phase system.
Since potential difference
exists between pairs of
conductors and between each
conductor and the sheath,
electrostatic fields are set up in
the cable as shown in Fig. (i).
141
 These electrostatic fields give

rise to core-core capacitances
Cc and conductor-earth
capacitances Ce as shown in
Fig. (ii).
 The three Cc are delta

connected whereas the three
Ce are star connected, the
sheath forming the star point
[See Fig. (iii)].
142
 They lay of a belted cable makes it reasonable to

assume equality of each Cc and each Ce. The three
delta connected capacitances Cc [See Fig. 11.19 (i)]
can be converted into equivalent star connected
capacitances as shown in Fig. 11.19(ii)
 It can be easily
*shown that
equivalent star
capacitance Ceq is
equal to three times
the delta
capacitance Cci.e.
Ceq = 3Cc.
143
 The system of capacitances reduces to the

equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 11.20 (i). Therefore,
the whole cable is equivalent to three star-connected
capacitors each of capacitance [See Fig. 11.20 (ii)]
144
Current-carrying Capacity
145
 The safe current-carrying capacity of an

underground cable is determined by the maximum
permissible temperature rise.
 The cause of temperature rise is the losses that
occur in a cable which appear as heat
 These losses are :
i. Copper losses in the conductors
ii. Hysteresis losses in the dielectric
iii. Eddy current losses in the sheath
Current-carrying Capacity
146
 The safe working conductor temperature is 65ºC for armoured

cables and 50ºC for lead-sheathed cables laid in ducts.
 The maximum steady temperature conditions prevail when the
heat generated in the cable is equal to the heat dissipated.
 The heat dissipation of the conductor losses is by conduction
through the insulation to the sheath from which the total
losses (including dielectric and sheath losses) may be
conducted to the earth.
 Therefore, in order to find permissible current loading, the
thermal resistivity of the insulation, the protective covering
and the soil must be known.
Thermal Resistance
147
 The thermal resistance between two points in a

medium (e.g. insulation) is equal to temperature
difference between these points divided by the
heat flowing between them in a unit time i.e.
Thermal Resistance
148
 The SI unit of thermal resistance is ºC per watt.

This is also called thermal ohm.
 Thermal resistance is directly proportional to
length l in the direction of transmission of heat
and inversely proportional to the cross-section
area a at right angles to that direction.
 where k is the constant of proportionality and is

known as thermal resistivity. Unit is in ohm-m.
Thermal Resistance of Dielectric of a
149
Single-Core Cable
Permissible Current Loading
150
 When considering heat dissipation in underground cables,

the various thermal resistances providing a heat dissipation
path are in series. Therefore, they add up like electrical
resistances in series.
 Consider a cable laid in soil.
Permissible Current Loading
151
 It should be noted that when cables are laid in proximity to

each other, the permissible current is reduced further on
account of mutual heating.
152
Types of Cable Faults
153
 Cables are generally laid directly in the ground or in

ducts in the underground distribution system.
 For this reason, there are little chances of faults in
underground cables. However, if a fault does occur,
it is difficult to locate and repair the fault because
conductors are not visible.
 Nevertheless, the following are the faults most
likely to occur in underground cables :
i. Open-circuit fault
ii. Short-circuit fault
iii. Earth fault.
Types of Cable Faults –
(i) Open-circuit Fault.
154
 When there is a break in the conductor of a cable,

it is called open circuit fault.
 The open-circuit fault can be checked by a
megger. For this purpose, the three conductors of
the 3-core cable at the far end are shorted and
earthed.
 Then resistance between each conductor and earth
is measured by a megger. The megger will
indicate zero resistance in the circuit of the
conductor that is not broken. However, if the
conductor is broken,
UEEA3773 Power Transmission the meggerDr.will
and Distribution indicate
Lim Boon Han 11/03/2020
(ii) Short-circuit Fault
155
 When two conductors of a multi-core cable come

in electrical contact with each other due to
insulation failure, it is called a short-circuit fault.
 For this purpose, the two terminals of the megger
are connected to any two conductors.
 If the megger gives zero reading, it indicates short
circuit fault between these conductors.
 The same step is repeated for other conductors
taking two at a time.
(iii) Earth Fault.
156
 When the conductor of a cable comes in contact

with earth, it is called earth fault or ground fault.
 To identify this fault, one terminal of the megger
is connected to the conductor and the other
terminal connected to earth.
 If the megger indicates zero reading, it means the
conductor is earthed.
 The same procedure is repeated for other
conductors of the cable.
Loop Tests For Location of Faults
157
 Two popular methods known as loop tests are :

i. Murray loop test
ii. Varley loop test
 These simple tests can be used to locate the earth
fault or short-circuit fault in underground cables
provided that a sound cable runs along the faulty
cable. Both these tests employ the principle of
Wheatstone Bridge for fault location.
The Murray Loop Test
158
 The Murray loop test is the most common and accurate

method of locating earth fault or short-circuit fault in
underground cables.
 (i) Earth fault : Fig. 11.22 shows the circuit diagram for
locating the earth fault by Murray loop test. Here AB is the
sound cable and CD is the faulty cable; the earth fault
occurring at point F. The far end D of the faulty cable is
joined to the far end B of the sound cable through a low
resistance link. Two variable resistances P and Q are
joined to ends A and C (See Fig. 11.22) respectively and
serve as the ratio arms of the Wheatstone bridge.
The Murray loop test – Earth Fault
159
11/03/2020
The Murray loop test – Short-Circuit
160
Fault
11/03/2020
161
162
 Thus the position of the fault is located. Note that

resistance of the fault is in the battery circuit and not in the
bridge circuit. Therefore, fault resistance does not affect
the balancing of the bridge.
 However, if the fault resistance is high, the sensitivity of
the bridge is reduced.
Varley Loop Test
163
 The Varley loop test is also used to locate earth

fault or short-circuit fault in underground cables.
This test also employs Wheatstone bridge
principle. It differs from Murray loop test in that
here the ratio arms P and Q are fixed resistances.
Balance is obtained by adjusting the variable
resistance S connected to the test end of the faulty
cable. The connection diagrams for locating the
earth fault and short-circuit fault by Varley loop
test are shown in Figs. 11.24 and 11.25
respectively.
Varley Loop Test – Earth Fault
164
Varley Loop Test – Short-Circuit Fault
165
Varley Loop Test
166
Varley Loop Test
167
Example
168
Example
169
CHAP 5 UNDERGROUND
170
CABLE Criteria
Criteria Advantages
Advantages
General Construction Applications
Construction Applications
Concept
Voltage Level
Classifications
Undergrou XLPE, EPDM etc.
Insulating materials
nd Cable Ancillary
Facilities Number of cores Belted (Solid
Screen (H, SL)
Cable Laying 3-phase cables Pressurized (Oil or gas)
Insulating resistance 1-core

Dielectric stress
Capacitance 3-phase
Grading
Current carrying capacity Murray
Cable fault test Varley 11/03/2020

UEEA 3773 2018 - Lecture 5

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

UEEA 3773 2018 - Lecture 5

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

UNDERGROUND

 Upon completion of this chapter, students should

 Introduction to underground cables

 Most economical conductor size in a cable

 Less liable to damage

 10 times more expensive

a. Conductor: tinned stranded copper/aluminium of high

 Cables for underground service may be classified

 High insulation resistance to avoid leakage current

 No one insulating material possesses all the above

 Since the paper insulated cables have the tendency

 It is a cotton cloth impregnated and coated with varnish.

 This insulating material is a synthetic compound.

 Polyvinyl chloride has high insulation resistance, good

 Most high-voltage cables for power transmission that are

 Between 1960 and 1990, polymers became

 Figure shows the constructional

 The insulation is surrounded by a lead sheath which

 In practice, underground cables are generally

 The following types of cables are generally

 These cables are used

 The cores are insulated from each other by layers of

 The lead sheath is covered with one or more layers

 As the insulation resistance of paper is quite small

 These cables are meant for use up to 33

 Name after the first designer H. Hochstadter and

 Each core is insulated by layers of impregnated

 It is easy to see that each core screen is in electrical

 Two principal advantages:

 Fig. 11.5 shows the

 There is no overall lead sheath but only armouring

 All the cables of above construction are referred to

b) When the load on the cable decreases, the conductor

The breakdown strength of voids is considerably less

 For voltages beyond 66 kV, solid type cables are

 In such types of cables, channels or ducts are

 Due to the elimination of voids, oil-filled cables

a) Single-core conductor channel, oil filled cable

 The oil channel is formed at the centre by stranding

 The system is so designed that when the oil gets

 The oil-filled cables have three principal

 Different types of cables require different ancillary

 Vaults are large concrete boxes buried at regular intervals

 Vaults are approximately 10 by 30 feet and 10 feet high.

 The reliability of underground cable network

 Simple and cheap. Much

 After the cable has been laid in the trench, it is covered

 Cables to be laid in this way must have

 This method of laying cables is used in open

1. It is a simple and less costly method.

2. It gives the best conditions for dissipating the

3. It is a clean and safe method as the cable is

1. The extension of load is possible only by a

 In this method, conduit or duct

 Fig. 11.11 shows section through four-way underground

 Care must be taken that where the duct line changes

1. Repairs, alterations or additions to the cable

1. The initial cost is very high.

2. The current carrying capacity of the cables is

 This method of cable laying is suitable for

 In this method of laying, the cable is laid in open pipes

1. It is more expensive than direct laid system.

of laying underground cables is rarely used