Permeability of Reservoir Rocks

Permeability of
Reservoir rocks
Permeability
Permeability is measured in darcy units or more commonly
millidarcy (md - one thousandth of a darcy) after Henry Darcy
who carried out some pioneering work on water flow through
unconsolidated sand stones.
A practical definition of a darcy is as follows;
A rock has a permeability (k) of 1 Darcy if a pressure gradient of
1 atm/cm induces a flow rate of 1 cc/sec/cm2 of cross sectional
area with a liquid viscosity 1 cp
Permeability
The grain size has a negligible effect on the porosity of a rock,
but this has a predominant effect on permeability.
More frictional forces are encountered while passing the same
fluid through a fine granular pack than through a coarse
granular pack of equal porosity.
Permeability
The apparent permeability is dependent on the type of fluid flowing
through the rock and this plays an important part in the interpretation
of different hydrocarbon bearing reservoirs.
Permeability is denoted in three different ways.
1. Absolute permeability ka is derived in the laboratory by flowing a
known quantity of fluid through a core while its pore spaces are
100% saturated with the same fluid. Absolute permeability will
not change with varying fluids as long as the pore space
configuration remains constant.
2. Effective permeability is the permeability of a flowing phase
which does not saturate 100% of the rock. The effective
permeability is always less than the absolute value of k for the
rock.
3. Relative permeability is a dimensionless number which is the ratio
of effective permeability (to a fluid) to absolute permeability of
the same rock.
Relations between Permeability and Fluid
Saturation
The effective permeability of a fluid is a function of the
saturation.
Coring
One way to get more detailed samples of a
formation is by coring, where formation sample is
drilled out by means of special bit.
This sample can provide:

Detailed lithological decscription.
 Porosity, permeability, fluid saturation and
grain density.
 These parameters are measured in the

laboratory and serve as a basis for calibrating
the response of the porosity logging tools and
to establish a porosity/permeability
relationship.
Planning for core analysis
• Well operations
– core bit, mud, tracers,
preservation
– core handling and
stabilisation
• Stage analysis program

– to suit business needs
– flexibility in-built
7
CORING ASSEMBLY AND CORE BIT
Drill collar
connection
PDC Cutters
Thrust bearing
Outer barrel
Inner barrel
Fluid
vent
Core retaining
ring
Core bit
COMING OUT OF HOLE WITH CORE BARREL
Core Analysis
Core Analysis Preparation
After the core has been cut and preserved at the well site, it is
transported to the core analysis laboratory where it is
subjected to a wide variety of measurements. These
measurements are divided into two main categories:
(1)basic (or routine) core analysis laboratory (RCAL) and
(2)special core analysis laboratory (SCAL) measurements.
They include grain density, porosity, permeability, fluid
saturation, electrical resistivity, capillary pressure and relative
permeability measurements.
However, several steps should be taken before these
measurements take place.
These are imaging, sample selection, core plugging and plug
preparation.
Core Analysis
Conventional/Routine Core Analysis.

• The core is usually slabbed, cut
lengthwise to make the structure
visible.
• Provides information on lithology,
residual fluid saturation, ambient
porosity, ambient gas
permeability and grain density.
Routine core analysis is
generally concerned with
plug samples drilled
parallel to bedding planes
and, hence, parallel to
direction of flow in the
reservoir. These yield
horizontal permeability
(kh).
The measured
permeability on plugs that
are drilled perpendicular to
bedding planes are
referred to as vertical
permeability (kv).
I IIa IIb
Different Unacceptable
Lithologies ~1 ft
kH ?
Require Or
Full-
Careful Suitable
kH Diameter
Selection of kV kV
Suitable III IV V
Core Plugs kV
or Require Full
Diameter kH Matrix
Only
Whole-Core `4” - 9”
Analyses Fracture
k and ?
Whole Core
Analysis
(2-3 ft)
Core Analysis
Gas Permeameter
Liquid Permeameter
Core Analysis
Porosimeter
Core Analysis
Special Core Analysis (SCAL) :

Provides the following information:
 Porosity and permeability at elevated confining stress.
 Electrical properties such as formation factor and
resistivity index.
 Capillary pressure.
 Wettability and relative permeability.
 Mechanical rock properties such as compressibility.
 Water flood sensitivity for injectivity and well
performance.
Permeability
There are several factors that must be considered as possible
sources of error in determining reservoir permeability.
These factors are:
1. Core sample may not be representative of the reservoir rock
because of reservoir heterogeneity.
2. Core recovery may be incomplete.
3. Permeability of the core may be altered when it is cut, or when
it is cleaned and dried in preparation for analysis. This problem
is likely to occur when the rock contains reactive clays.
4. Sampling process may be biased. There is a temptation to
select the best parts of the core for analysis.
WHOLE CORE
Whole Core Photograph,
Misoa “C” Sandstone,
Venezuela
Photo by W. Ayers
Plug Cleaning
• Before porosity and permeability measurements take

place, samples should be thoroughly cleaned of reservoir
fluids.
• Cleaning is achieved by a hot solvent extraction (Soxhlett)
technique.
• Depending on the rock type, fluid characteristics, rock
mineralogy and timing, the most appropriate solvent is
determined.
• Toluene is the most commonly used solvent to extract the
water and hydrocarbons.
• It is usually followed by extraction of the salt with a
chloroform/methanol mixture.
Dean-Stark distillation extraction apparatus
LAB PROCEDURE FOR MEASURING
PERMEABILITY
• Cut core plugs from whole core or use

sample from whole core
• Clean core and extract reservoir fluids, then
dry the core
• Flow a fluid through core at several flow rates
• Record inlet and outlet pressures for each
rate
PERMEABILITY
PERMEABILITY
• Measure inlet and outlet pressures (p1 and p2)
at several different flow rates
• Graph ratio of flow rate to area (q/A) versus
the pressure function (p1 - p2)/L
• For laminar flow, data follow a straight line
with slope of k/
• At very high flow rates, turbulent flow is
indicated by a deviation from straight line
through origin
Laboratory Determination of Absolute
Permeability, Liquid Flow
Darcy Flow Non-Darcy Flow
q
A
k
Slope = m
0
0 (p1 - p2)
L
ISSUES AFFECTING LABORATORY
MEASUREMENTS OF PERMEABILITY
• Core Handling, Cleaning, and Sampling

• Fluid-Rock Interactions
• Pressure Changes
• Rock Heterogeneities (Fractures)
• Gas Velocity Effects (Klinkenberg)
CORE HANDLING PROCESSES AFFECT
PERMEABILITY MEASUREMENTS
• Core Handling
• Cleaning
• Drying (Clay Damage)
• Storage (Freezing)
• Sampling
FLUID-ROCK INTERACTIONS AFFECT
• Fresh water may cause clay swelling,

reducing permeability
• Tests may cause fines migration, plugging
pore throats and reducing permeability
• Reservoir or synthetic reservoir fluids are
generally preferred
PRESSURES AFFECT LABORATORY
• Core alterations resulting from loss of

Confining Pressure during core recovery
• Core testing may be conducted by applying a
range of net overburden pressures
Permeability is measured by passing a fluid of known
viscosity μ through a core plug of measured dimensions (A
and L) and then measuring flow rate q and pressure drop Δp.
Solving following Equation for the permeability,
or (1)
where L = length of core, cm

A = cross-sectional area, cm2
The following conditions must exist during the measurement
of permeability:
• Laminar (viscous) flow
• No reaction between fluid and rock
• Only single phase present at 100% pore space saturation
(This measured permeability at 100% saturation of a single phase is
called the absolute permeability of the rock.)
Example
A brine is used to measure the absolute permeability of a
core plug. The rock sample is 4 cm long and 3 cm2 in cross
section. The brine has a viscosity of 1.0 cp and is flowing a
constant rate of 0.5 cm3/sec under a 2.0 atm pressure
differential. Calculate the absolute permeability.
Example
A brine is used to measure the absolute permeability of a
core plug. The rock sample is 4 cm long and 3 cm2 in cross
section. The brine has a viscosity of 1.0 cp and is flowing a
constant rate of 0.5 cm3/sec under a 2.0 atm pressure
differential. Calculate the absolute permeability.
Applying Darcy’s equation
Example
Oil is used to measure the absolute permeability of a core
plug. The rock sample is 4 cm long and 3 cm2 in cross section.
The oil has a viscosity of 2.0 cp and is flowing a constant rate
of 0.25 cm3/sec under a 2.0 atm pressure differential.
Calculate the absolute permeability.
Example
Oil is used to measure the absolute permeability of a core
plug. The rock sample is 4 cm long and 3 cm2 in cross section.
The oil has a viscosity of 2.0 cp and is flowing a constant rate
of 0.25 cm3/sec under a 2.0 atm pressure differential.
Calculate the absolute permeability.
Applying Darcy’s equation
The Klinkenberg Effect
Klinkenberg (1941) discovered that permeability
measurements made with air as the flowing fluid showed
different results from permeability measurements made with
a liquid as the flowing fluid.
Klinkenberg postulated, on the basis of his laboratory
experiments, that liquids had a zero velocity at the sand grain
surface, while gases exhibited some finite velocity at the sand
grain surface.
In other words, the gases exhibited slippage at the sand grain
surface. This slippage resulted in a higher flow rate for the
gas at a given pressure differential.
Mean pressure is defined as upstream flowing plus
downstream flowing pressure divided by two, [pm = (p1 +
p2)/2].
If a plot of measured permeability versus 1/pm were
extrapolated to the point where 1/pm = 0, in other words,
where pm = infinity, this permeability would be
approximately equal to the liquid permeability.
A graph of this nature is shown in Figure. The absolute
permeability is determined by extrapolation as shown in
Figure.
The magnitude of the Klinkenberg effect varies with the core
permeability and the type of the gas used in the experiment.
The Klinkenberg effect in gas permeability measurements.
The resulting straight-line relationship can be expressed as
(1)
where kg = measured gas permeability

pm = mean pressure
kL = equivalent liquid permeability, i.e., absolute permeability,
k
c = slope of the line
Klinkenberg suggested that the slope c ≅ is a function of the
following factors:
• Absolute permeability k i.e. equivalent liquid permeability
kL .
• Type of the gas used in measuring the permeability, e.g.,
air.
• Average radius of the rock capillaries.
Klinkenberg expressed the slope c by the following
relationship:
c = bkL (2)
where kL = equivalent liquid permeability, i.e., absolute
permeability, k,
b = constant that depends on the size of the pore openings and is
inversely proportional to radius of capillaries.
Combining Equation 1 with 2
where kg is the gas permeability as measured at the average

pressure pm.
Averaging Absolute Permeability
The most difficult reservoir properties to determine usually
are the level and distribution of the absolute permeability
throughout the reservoir.
Knowledge of permeability distribution is critical to predict
reservoir depletion by any recovery process.
It is rare to encounter a homogeneous reservoir in actual
practice.
In many cases, the reservoir contains distinct layers, blocks,
or concentric rings of varying permeability. Also,
Because of presence of smaller-scale heterogeneities, core
permeability must be averaged to represent the flow
characteristics of the entire reservoir or individual reservoir
layers (units).
Averaging Absolute Permeability
The proper way of averaging the permeability data depends
on how permeability were distributed during the deposition
of rock.
There are three simple permeability-averaging techniques
that are commonly used to determine an appropriate
average permeability to represent an equivalent
homogeneous system. These are:
• Weighted-average permeability
• Harmonic-average permeability
• Geometric-average permeability
Weighted-Average Permeability
This averaging method is used to determine the average
permeability of layered-parallel beds with different
permeability.
Consider the case of three
parallel layers that are
separated from one
another by thin
impermeable barriers, i.e.,
no cross flow, as shown in
Figure.
All the layers have the
same width w with a cross-
sectional area of A.
The flow from each layer can be calculated by applying
Darcy’s equation in a linear form as expressed by Equation-1
The total flow rate from the entire system is expressed as
where qt = total flow rate

kavg = average permeability for the entire model
w = width of the formation
Δp = p1 - p2
ht = total thickness
The total flow rate qt is equal to the sum of the flow rates
through each layer or:
qt = q1 + q2 + q3
Combining the above expressions gives:
Or kavg ht = k1 h1 +k2 h2 +k3 h3
The average absolute permeability for a parallel-layered

system can be expressed in the following form:
Example
Given the following permeability data from a core analysis
report, calculate the average permeability of the reservoir.
Harmonic-Average Permeability
Permeability variations can occur laterally in a reservoir as
well as in the vicinity of a well bore.
Figure shows an illustration of fluid flow through a series
combination of beds with different permeability.
For a steady-state flow, the flow rate is constant and the total
pressure drop Δp is equal to the sum of the pressure drops
across each bed, or
Δp = Δp1 + Δp2 + Δp3
Substituting for the pressure drop by applying Darcy’s
equation,
This eq can be expressed
Where Li =Length of each bed

Ki=absolute permeability of
each bed
Example:
A hydrocarbon reservoir is characterized by five distinct
formation segments that are connected in series. Each
segment has the same formation thickness. The length and
permeability of each section of the five bed reservoir are
given below: Calculate the average permeability of reservoir
Example:
using the equation

RELATIVE PERMEABILITY
Effective permeability are normally measured directly in the
laboratory on small core plugs.
The absolute permeability is a property of the porous
medium and is a measure of the capacity of the medium to
transmit fluids.
When two or more fluids flow at the same time, the relative
permeability of each phase at a specific saturation is the ratio
of the effective permeability of the phase to the absolute
permeability.
Or
Drainage Process
It is generally agreed that the pore spaces of reservoir rocks
were originally filled with water, after which oil moved into
the reservoir, displacing some of the water, and reducing the
water to some residual saturation.
When discovered, the reservoir pore spaces are filled with a
connate water saturation and an oil saturation. If gas is the
displacing agent, then gas moves into the reservoir, displacing
the oil.
This same history must be duplicated in the laboratory by first
saturating the core with water, then displacing the water to a
residual, or connate, water saturation with oil after which the
oil in the core is displaced by gas.
Imbibition Process
• The wetting phase (water) is reintroduced into the core
and the water (wetting phase) is continuously increased.
• This is the imbibition process and is intended to produce
the relative permeability data needed for water drive or
water flooding calculations.
• Figure schematically illustrates the difference in the
drainage and imbibition processes of measuring relative
permeability.
• It is noted that the imbibition technique causes the
nonwetting phase (oil) to lose its mobility at higher values
of water saturation than does the drainage process.
There are several important differences between oil-wet and
water-wet relative permeability curves that are generally
observed; these are as follows:
1. The water saturation at which oil and water permeability
are equal, that is, the intersection point of the two curves,
will generally be greater than 50% for water-wet systems
and less than 50% for oil-wet systems.
2. The relative permeability to water at maximum water
saturation (i.e., (1-Sor)), will be less than 0.3 for water-wet
systems and is roughly greater than 0.5 for oil-wet
systems.
3. The connate water saturation for a water-wet system,
Swc, is generally greater than 25%, whereas for oil-wet
systems it is generally less than 15%.
Two-phase Relative Permeability Correlations
In many cases, relative permeability data on actual samples
from the reservoir under study may not be available, in which
case it is necessary to obtain the desired relative permeability
data in some other manner.
Several methods have been developed for calculating relative
permeability relationships.
Various parameters have been used to calculate the relative
permeability relationships, including:
• Residual and initial saturations
• Capillary pressure data
Most of the proposed correlations use the effective phase
saturation as a correlating parameter.
The effective phase saturation is defined by the following set
of relationships:
where S*o, S*w, S*g = effective oil, water, and gas saturation,
respectively
So, Sw, Sg = oil, water and gas saturation, respectively
Swc = connate (irreducible) water saturation
1. Wyllie and Gardner Correlation
Wyllie and Gardner (1958) observed that, in some rocks, the
relationship between the reciprocal capillary pressure
squared (1/Pc 2) and the effective water saturation S*w is
linear over a wide range of saturation.
Honapour et al. (1988) conveniently tabulated Wyllie and

Gardner correlations as shown below:
* Unconsolidated sand, well sorted, Kro = (1 − S*w)3

2. Torcaso and Wyllie Correlation
Torcaso and Wyllie (1958) developed a simple expression to
determine the relative permeability of the oil phase in a gas-
oil system.
The expression permits the calculation of kro from the
measurements of krg. The equation has the following form:
The above expression is very useful since krg measurements

are easily made and kro measurements are usually made with
difficulty.
3. Pirson’s Correlation
Pirson (1958) derived generalized relationships for
determining the wetting and nonwetting phase relative
permeability for both imbibition and drainage processes. The
generalized expressions are applied for water-wet rocks.
For the water (wetting) phase
The above expression is valid for both the imbibition and

drainage processes.
For the nonwetting phase
• Imbibition
• Drainage
where Snw = saturation of the nonwetting phase

Sw = water saturation
S*w = effective water saturation as defined by Equation 5-2
Example
Generate the drainage relative permeability data for an
unconsolidated well-sorted sand by using the Wyllie and
Gardner method. Assume the following critical saturation
values:
Soc = 0.3, Swc = 0.25, Sgc = 0.05
Solution
Generate the oil-water relative permeability data by applying
Equation 5-4 in conjunction with Equation 5-2, to give:
Solution
Apply Equation 5-7 in conjunction with Equation 5-1 to
generate relative permeability data for the gas-oil system.
4. Corey’s Method
Corey (1954) proposed a simple mathematical expression for
generating the relative permeability data of the gas-oil
system. The approximation is good for drainage processes,
i.e., gas-displacing oil.
kro =(1− S*g )4 (5.16)

krg = (S*g )3(2 − S*g ) (5.17)
Example
Use Corey’s approximation to generate the gas-oil relative
permeability for a formation with a connate water saturation
of 0.25.
5. Relative Permeability from Capillary Pressure Data
Rose and Bruce (1949) showed that capillary pressure pc is a
measure of the fundamental characteristics of the formation
and could also be used to predict the relative permeability.
Based on the concepts of tortuosity, Wyllie and Gardner
(1958) developed the following mathematical expression for
determining the drainage water-oil relative permeability from
capillary pressure data:
5. Relative Permeability from Capillary Pressure Data
Wyllie and Gardner also presented two expressions for
generating the oil and gas relative permeability in the
presence of the connate water saturation.
The authors considered the connate water as part of the rock
matrix to give:
6. Relative Permeability from Analytical Equations
Analytical representations for individual-phase relative
permeability are commonly used in numerical simulators.
The most frequently used functional forms for relative-
permeability and capillary pressure data are given below:
Oil-Water Systems:
Gas-Oil Systems:
with
Slc = Swc + Sorg
Figure Water-oil relative

permeability curves.
Figure Water-oil relative

permeability curves.
Example
Using the analytical expressions of Equations 5-22 through 5-
27, generate the relative permeability and capillary pressure
data.
The following information on the water-oil and gas-oil
systems is available:
Swc = 0.25 Sorw = 0.35 Sgc = 0.05 Sorg = .23
(kro)Swc = 0.85 (krw)Sorw = 0.4 (Pc)Swc = 20 psi
(kro)Sgc = 0.60 (krg)Swc = 0.95
no = 0.9 nw = 1.5 np = 0.71
ngo = 1.2 ng = 0.6 (pc)Slc = 30 psi
npg = 0.51
Solution
Step 1. Calculate residual liquid saturation Slc.
Slc = Swc + Sorg,
= 0.25 + 0.23 = 0.48
Step 2. Generate relative permeability and capillary pressure
data for oil water system by applying Equations 5-22 through
5-24.
Solution
Relative Permeability Ratio
The relative permeability ratio expresses the ability of a
reservoir to permit flow of one fluid as related to its ability to
permit flow of another fluid under the same circumstances.
The two most useful permeability ratios are krg/kro the
relative permeability to gas with respect to that to oil and
krw/kro the relative permeability to water with respect to
that to oil, it being understood that both quantities in the
ratio are determined simultaneously on a given system.
The relative permeability ratio may vary in magnitude from
zero to infinity.
In describing two-phase flow mathematically, it is always the
relative permeability ratio (e.g., krg/kro or kro/krw) that is
used in the flow equations.
Relative Permeability Ratio
Because the wide range of the relative permeability ratio
values, the permeability ratio is usually plotted on the log
scale of semilog paper as a function of the saturation.
Like many relative permeability ratio curves, the central or
the main portion of the curve is quite linear.
Figure shows a plot of krg/kro versus gas saturation. It has
become common usage to express the central straight-line
portion of the relationship in the following analytical form:
The constants a (intercept) and b (slope) may be determined

by selecting the coordinate of two different points on the
straight-line portion of the curve and substituting in Equation
above.
Figure:
krg/kro as function of saturation
THREE-PHASE RELATIVE PERMEABILITY
In general, the relative permeability of each phase, i.e., water,
gas, and oil, in a three-phase system is essentially related to
the existing saturation.
There are several practical and more accurate correlations
that have developed over the years, including:
• Wyllie’s Correlations
• Stone’s Model I
• Stone’s Model II
• The Hustad-Holt Correlation
Wyllie’s Correlations
Wyllie (1961) proposed the following equations for three-
phase relative permeabilities in a water-wet system:
In a cemented sandstone, Vugular rock, or oolitic limestone:
Wyllie’s Correlations
In unconsolidated, well-sorted sand:
Stone’s Model I
Stone (1970) developed a probability model to estimate
three-phase relative permeability data from the laboratory-
measured two-phase data.
Stone suggested that a nonzero residual oil saturation, called
minimum oil saturation, Som exists when oil is displaced
simultaneously by water and gas.
It should be noted that this minimum oil saturation Som is
different than the critical oil saturation in the oil-water system
(i.e., Sorw) and the residual oil saturation in the gas-oil system,
i.e., Sorg.
Stone introduced the normalized saturations as:
Stone’s Model I
The oil-relative permeability in a three-phase system is then

defined as:
kro = S*oβwβg
Stone’s Model I
The two multipliers βw and βg are determined from:
where Som = minimum oil saturation

krow = oil relative permeability as determined from the oil-
water two-phase relative permeability at Sw
krog = oil relative permeability as determined from the gas-oil
two-phase relative permeability at Sg
Stone’s Model II
Stone (1973) proposed the following normalized expression
which gives a reasonable approximation to the three-phase
relative permeability.
Thank you

Permeability of Reservoir Rocks

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Permeability of Reservoir Rocks

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Permeability of

This sample can provide:

 These parameters are measured in the

• Stage analysis program

Conventional/Routine Core Analysis.

Special Core Analysis (SCAL) :

• Before porosity and permeability measurements take

• Cut core plugs from whole core or use

Darcy Flow Non-Darcy Flow

• Core Handling, Cleaning, and Sampling

• Fresh water may cause clay swelling,

• Core alterations resulting from loss of

where L = length of core, cm

where kg = measured gas permeability

where kg is the gas permeability as measured at the average

where qt = total flow rate

Or kavg ht = k1 h1 +k2 h2 +k3 h3

The average absolute permeability for a parallel-layered

This eq can be expressed

Where Li =Length of each bed

using the equation

Honapour et al. (1988) conveniently tabulated Wyllie and

* Unconsolidated sand, well sorted, Kro = (1 − S*w)3

The above expression is very useful since krg measurements

The above expression is valid for both the imbibition and

where Snw = saturation of the nonwetting phase

kro =(1− S*g )4 (5.16)

Figure Water-oil relative

Figure Water-oil relative

The constants a (intercept) and b (slope) may be determined

The oil-relative permeability in a three-phase system is then

where Som = minimum oil saturation

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