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The hormonal system secretes hormones like insulin and epinephrine, which effect the
contractility of the heart muscle.
The respiratory system causes periodic changes in the thoracic pressure, and thus effect the
blood flow, venous pressure and venous return, triggering a reflex responses (baroreceptor
reflex, bainbridge reflex) that modulates the heart rate. The heart rate is increased during
inspiration and decreased during expiration.
Other mechanical factors are the peripheral resistance of the blood vessels, that can change due
to internal or external factors (stenosis), the resulting venous return, the state of the valves
(torn, calcified)
Other electrical factors are ectopic pacemaker cells, conduction problems, reentry circuits
Hormonal Respiratory
Autnonomous
System System
Nervous
(Epinephrine, (thoracic
Sysetm
Insulin) pressure)
contractility
compliance resistance
pacemaker rate
preload, afterload compliance
Echocard
Electroca Phonocar Pressure
iogram/
rdiogram diogram wave
Doppler
The two major clinical indicators for heart failure are increased filling
pressure and decreased ejection fraction. The ability to measure, or to
estimate these indexes is crucial for early detection of the disease.