Study of Radiation Therapy Equipment in

Prepared by a.Devasena., Asso.Prof.
Dept. Of ECE.,
Dhanalakshmi College of Engineering ,
1
Chennai
Study of Radiation Therapy in Medical electronics

CANCER
• Cancer known medically as a malignant neoplasm, is a
broad group of diseases involving unregulated cell
growth.
Chennai
Dept. Of ECE.,
• In cancer, cells divide and grow uncontrollably, forming
malignant tumors, and invading nearby parts of the body.
• The cancer may also spread to more distant parts of the
body through the lymphatic system or bloodstream .
• Not all tumors are cancerous; benign tumors do not
invade neighboring tissues and do not spread throughout
the body. There are over 200 different known cancers
that affect humans.
2
CAUSES OF CANCER
• The causes of cancer are diverse, complex, and only
partially understood.
Chennai
Dept. Of ECE.,
• Many things are known to increase the risk of cancer,
including tobacco use, dietary factors, certain infections,
exposure to radiation, lack of physical activity, obesity,
and environmental pollutants.
• These factors can directly damage genes or combine
with existing genetic faults within cells to cause
cancerous mutations.
• Approximately 5–10% of cancers can be traced directly
to inherited genetic defects.
3
DETECTION OF CANCER
• Cancer can be detected in a number of ways, including
the presence of certain signs and symptoms, screening
Chennai
Dept. Of ECE.,
tests, or medical imaging.
• Once a possible cancer is detected it is diagnosed by
microscopic examination of a tissue sample.
• Cancer is usually treated with chemotherapy, radiation
therapy and surgery. The chances of surviving the
disease vary greatly by the type and location of the
cancer and the extent of disease at the start of treatment.
4
CHEMOTHERAPY
• Chemotherapy (often abbreviated to chemo and
sometimes CTX or CTx) is the treatment of cancer with
Chennai
Dept. Of ECE.,
one or more cytotoxic anti- neoplastic drugs drugs
( chemotherapeutic agents) as part of a standardized
regimen.
• Chemotherapy may be given with a curative intent or it
may aim to prolong life or to palliate symptoms
• It is often used in conjunction with other cancer
treatments, such as radiation therapy, surgery, and/or
hyperthermia therapy.
5
GOALS OF RADIATION THERAPY
• Radiation therapy is an effective treatment for various
types of cancers in almost any part of the body.
Chennai
Dept. Of ECE.,
• Its two main goals are,
• To cure cancer.
• To relieve symptoms
• For many patients radiation is the only treatment
needed.
• About 90% of all cancer patients can be treated by
radiation. The rest 10% is a combination of surgery and
chemo therapy.
6
RADIATION THERAPY - TREATMENT
 Radiotherapy treatment is given using either a machine
called cobalt, linear accelerator or, for some skin tumors,
Chennai
Dept. Of ECE.,
a superficial x-ray unit.
 To receive the radiotherapy, you will lie on a couch and
be asked to remain still during the actual treatment.
7
CANCER- METASIS
• Metastasis is the spread of cancer to other locations in
the body.
Chennai
Dept. Of ECE.,
• They can include enlarged lymph nodes (which can be
felt or sometimes seen under the skin and are typically
hard),hepatomegaly (enlarged liver) or
splenomegaly (enlarged spleen) which can be felt in the
abdomen, pain or fracture of affected bones, and
neurological symptoms.
• Most cancer deaths are due to cancer that has spread
from its primary site to other organs (metastasized).
8
Dept. Of ECE.,
9
Chennai
CANCER METASIS
BETATRON
• A betatron is a cyclic particle accelerator developed by

Donald kerst at the university of Illinois in 1940 to
Chennai
Dept. Of ECE.,
accelerate electrons, but the concepts ultimately
originate from rolf wideroe whose development of
an induction accelerator failed due to the lack of
transverse focusing.
• Previous development in Germany also occurred
through Max steenbeck in the 40s.
10
BETATRON CONT.
 The betatron was used for cancer treatment in the 1950s.

 The betatron is essentially a transformer with a torus-
Chennai
Dept. Of ECE.,
shaped vacuum tube as its secondary coil. An alternating
current in the primary coils accelerates electrons in the
vacuum around a circular path.
11
Dept. Of ECE.,
12
Chennai
A 6 MEV BETATRON - 1942
BETATRON CONT.
 The betatron was the first important machine for

producing high energy electrons.
Chennai
Dept. Of ECE.,
 The betatron produced high –energy X-ray beams as well
as electron beams of various energies.
13
OPERATING PRINCIPLE- BETATRON
CONT.
 in a betatron, the changing magnetic field from the

primary coil accelerates electrons injected into the
Chennai
Dept. Of ECE.,
vacuum torus, causing them to circle round the torus in
the same manner as current is induced in the secondary
coil of a transformer ( Faraday’s Law).
14
CONT.
• Some betatron units provided X-ray and electron

energies as high as 45MeV.
Chennai
Dept. Of ECE.,
• The great variety of treatment beams from the betatron
brought a new dimension to radiotherapy.
• Because of their greater penetration through thick body
sections high energy X- ray beams from the betatron
were found to be well suited for treating tumours of the
trunk and pelvis.
15
CONT.
• The maximum field size was also limited to about 20 x

20 cm.
Chennai
Dept. Of ECE.,
• For larger fields, the treatments had to be given at an
extended distance, further diminishing the radiation
output.
• This low output together with the difficulty in patient
positioning generally limited the throughput in terms of
number of patients that could be treated in a day.
16
APPTICATIONS OF BETATRON
 Betatrons were historically employed in particle
physics experiments to provide high energy beams of
Chennai
Dept. Of ECE.,
electrons—up to about 300 MeV
17
APPTICATIONS OF BETATRON CONT..
• If the electron beam is directed at a metal plate, the
betatron can be used as a source of energetic x-
Chennai
Dept. Of ECE.,
rays or gamma rays; these x-rays may be used in
industrial and medical applications (historically in
radiation oncology).
• A small version of a Betatron was also used to
provide electrons converted into hard X- rays by a target
to provide prompt initiation of some experimental
nuclear weapons by means of photon-induced fission and
photon->neutron reactions in the bomb core.
18
LIMITATIONS OF BETATRON
 The maximum energy that betatron can impart is limited
by the strength of the magnetic field due to the saturation
Chennai
Dept. Of ECE.,
of iron and by practical size of the magnet core.
 The next generation of accelerators, the synchrotrons,
overcame these limitations.
19
COBALT- 60 THERAPY
• Cobalt therapy or cobalt-60 therapy is the medical use
of gamma rays from cobalt- 60
Chennai
Dept. Of ECE.,
radioisotopes radioisotopes to treat conditions such as
cancer.
• As used in radiotherapy, cobalt units produce stable,
dichromatic beams of 1.17 and 1.33 MeV, resulting in an
average beam energy of 1.25 MeV. The cobalt-60 isotope
has a half- life of 5.3 years so the cobalt-60 needs to be
replaced occasionally
20
COBALT- 60 THERAPY CONT..
• In 1961 cobalt therapy was expected to replace X-ray
radiotherapy. The role of the cobalt unit has partly been
Chennai
Dept. Of ECE.,
replaced by the linear accelerator, which can generate
higher energy radiation.
• Cobalt treatment still has a useful role to play in certain
applications and is still in widespread use worldwide,
since the machinery is relatively reliable and simple to
maintain compared to the modern linear accelerator.
21
 Cobalt machines have the tremendous advantage of
producing a completely predictable, steady , reliable
Chennai
Dept. Of ECE.,
beam of relatively high-energy radiation which is also
relatively easy to repair when required.
22
 Almost any material placed within the neutron radiation
field of a nuclear reactor will become radioactive.
Chennai
Dept. Of ECE.,
 In case of cobalt- 60, the activity produced is determined
by the neutron flux density in the reactor, the neutron
capture cross-section, the amount of cobalt-59 inserted
into the reactor and the length of time it is left there.
23
 In order to attain the level of radioactivity, the cobalt
must be left in the reactor for a long time as while
Chennai
Dept. Of ECE.,
Cobalt- 60 is being formed it is also decaying.
 The resulting activity would be the sum of that what is
being produced and the amount that decays.
24
COBALT – 60 MACHINE
 It is Teletherapy equipment which is used for the
treatment of various type of cancers.
Chennai
Dept. Of ECE.,
 Here artificial radioactive substance Cobalt-60 is used
which emits gamma radiation.
 With the help of this radiation that cancer cells are
destroyed.
25
COBALT MACHINE
 A cobalt machine consists of the following major
subsystems
Chennai
Dept. Of ECE.,
 Cobalt source head
 Head Mounts
 Collimotor
 Treatment Table
 Control console and safety interlocks
26
Dept. Of ECE.,
27
Chennai
MODERN- COBALT- 60 TELETHERAPY
MACHINE
COBALT MACHINE-COBALT SOURCE
HEAD
• The heart of the system is the cobalt source.
• It is placed near the centre of a large, lead filled steel container
Chennai
Dept. Of ECE.,
• A number of methods have been devised for moving the source
from the off to the on position.
• The source is mounted in a heavy metal like tungsten wheel that
is rotated through 180 degree to carry it from off position to on
position.
• The transfer between off position to on position takes place in
less than two seconds for pinpoint exposure accuracy.
28
COBALT MACHINE-COBALT SOURCE
HEAD
 The lead- filled container is 25cm thick in all directions
from the source.
Chennai
Dept. Of ECE.,
 Its design should ensure that the leakage radiation
coming through its thickness would not cause an over
exposure to anyone staying at its surface for prolonged
period of time.
29
COBALT MACHINE-MOUNTS
• There are two basic ways of mounting and porting
radiation treatment units.
Chennai
Dept. Of ECE.,
• The unit is equipped with a treatment applicator which is
mounted at the end of the collimator.
• The motions of the mount allow the unit to point over a
wide range of directions and enable the operator to place
the end of the treatment applicator against the skin of the
patient.
30
COBALT MACHINE-COLLIMATORS
• Collimators consist of a set of bars that can produce a
radiation beam with a rectangular cross- section.
Chennai
Dept. Of ECE.,
• The collimator is constructed of four sets of flat, inter-
leaved lead vanes with angulated inner tungsten trees for
continuously variable field sizes.
• As the vanes move, the beam defining tungsten trees
automatically angulated to follow the divergence of the
beam.
31
COBALT MACHINE-TREATMENT TABLE
 The patient lies on a couch which can be raised or lowered or moved
sideways so that the tumor on this axis such that for any angle of the
gantry, the beam will pass through the tumor.
 The axis of rotation is a fixed distance from the source and the size
of the beam is specified by its size at the axis.
Chennai
Dept. Of ECE.,
 The focus of attention is now at the tumor rather than the surface.
 The travelling counter levered table top permits precise patient
positioning prior to treatment with fixed or moving radiation beam.
 Longitudinal and transverse table top travels are manually controlled
 Vertical elevation is motor- driven.
 In addition the entire tale pivots 180 about the vertical beam axis.
32
THE REASON FOR PREFERRING
COBALT- 60 MACHINE
• Besides Co-60 machine there are other machines, example: Linear
Accelerators.
• Linear Accelerators is also called high energy machines.
Chennai
Dept. Of ECE.,
• Among the high energy machines, Co-60 machine are the mainstay
of treatments because of cost, operation and application.
• For treatment like head, neck, esophagus which is very common
side of cancer, Co-60 machine is the best.
• Also depending on the size of the patient especially in this region,
there is no need of high energy machine.
• Linear Accelerators is a very complex machine, machine problems
occurs more frequently.
• Big centers/institutes always have Co-60 machines. They cannot
solely depend only on Linear Accelerators due to the above mention
problems, which will often halt the treatment and consequently
patient will suffer.
33
LINEAR PARTICLE ACCELERATOR
 A linear particle accelerator (often shortened to linac) is a

type of particle accelerator that greatly increases the velocity
of charged subatomic particles or ions by subjecting the
charged particles to a series of oscillating electric
Chennai
Dept. Of ECE.,
potentials along a linear beamline;
34
LINEAR PARTICLE ACCELERATOR
 This method of particle acceleration was invented by

Leo szilard.
Chennai
Dept. Of ECE.,
 It was patented in 1928 by Rolf wideroe who also built
the first operational device and was influenced by a
publication of Gustav lsing.
35
APPLICATIONS OF LINACS
 Linacs have many applications: they generate X-
rays and high energy electrons for medicinal purposes in
Chennai
Dept. Of ECE.,
radiation therapy, serve as particle injectors for higher-
energy accelerators, and are used directly to achieve the
highest kinetic energy for light particles (electrons and
positrons) for particle physics.
36
ELEMENTS OF LINACS- PARTICLE
SOURCE
 The design of the source depends on the particle that is
being moved.
Chennai
Dept. Of ECE.,
 Electrons are generated by a cold cathode, a hot cathode,
a photocathode, or radio frequency (RF) ion sources.
 Protons are generated in an ion source, which can have
many different designs. If heavier particles are to be
accelerated, (e.g., uranium ions), a specializedion
source is needed.
37
ELEMENTS OF LINACS- A HOLLOW PIPE
VACUUM CHAMBER
 . The length will vary with the application. If the device
is used for the production of X-rays for inspection or
Chennai
Dept. Of ECE.,
therapy the pipe may be only 0.5 to 1.5 meters long.
 If the device is to be an injector for a synchrotron it may
be about ten meters long. If the device is used as the
primary accelerator for nuclear particle investigations, it
may be several thousand meters long.
38
ELEMENTS OF LINACS- PARTICLE
SOURCE
 One or more sources of radio frequency energy, used to
energize the cylindrical electrodes.
Chennai
Dept. Of ECE.,
 A very high power accelerator will use one source for
each electrode.
 The sources must operate at precise power, frequency
and phase appropriate to the particle type to be
accelerated to obtain maximum device power.
39
ELEMENTS OF LINACS- AN
APPROPRIATE TARGET
 An appropriate target. If electrons are accelerated to
produce X-rays then a water cooled tungsten target is
Chennai
Dept. Of ECE.,
used.
 Various target materials are used when protons or other
nuclei are accelerated, depending upon the specific
investigation.
40
ELEMENTS OF LINACS- AN
APPROPRIATE TARGET
 For particle-to-particle collision investigations the beam
may be directed to a pair of storage rings, with the
Chennai
Dept. Of ECE.,
particles kept within the ring by magnetic fields.
 The beams may then be extracted from the storage rings
to create head on particle collisions.
41

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Study of Radiation Therapy Equipment in

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Prepared by a.Devasena., Asso.Prof.

• A betatron is a cyclic particle accelerator developed by

 The betatron was used for cancer treatment in the 1950s.

 The betatron was the first important machine for

 in a betatron, the changing magnetic field from the

• Some betatron units provided X-ray and electron

• The maximum field size was also limited to about 20 x

 A linear particle accelerator (often shortened to linac) is a

 This method of particle acceleration was invented by

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