Welding Metallurgy: Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy

Welding Metallurgy
Dr. Eng.
Hamed A. Nagy
Introductory
 Mechanical properties of a metal can be

altered by the application of various
mechanical and thermal treatments.
 Drastic changes will also occur if the
chemical composition is changed.
 Also, chemical composition will also have an
effect on its corrosion resistance and
weldability.
Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy
Basic Metal
Structures
 Atoms are so small that they cannot be seen, even

with the most powerful microscopes.
 At certain temperature ranges, they tend to form
substances having specific shapes.
 This is because there are definite forces acting
between these individual atoms These forces are in
equilibrium.

Basic Metal
Structures
 'Home' positions.
 Interatomic Spacing.
 Below a metal's yield point, Elastic, WHY?
 It was noted before that the metal atoms
exhibit a very specific spacing at a given
temperature, or internal energy.
 Expansion?

Basic Metal
Structures
 Liquid metal has a higher internal energy with

greater interatomic spacing, and is
considered to be amorphous.
 There are several ways of reducing or
eliminating residual stresses.
 Stress relief.
 Vibration.

Crystal Structures
 In a solid metal, the atoms tend to align themselves
into orderly lines, rows, and layers to form three
dimensional crystalline structures.
 "Unit cell".
 Body-centered cubic (BCC),
 Face-centered cubic (FCC),
 Body centered tetragonal (BCT), and
 Hexagonal close-packed, (HCP).

Solidification of Metals
 Nuclei.
 Then Grain.
 Mechanical properties can be dependent
upon the grain size of the metal.
 Effect varies with temperature.

Alloying
 The properties of metallic elements can be altered by
the addition of other elements, which may or may not
be metallic.
 Alloying elements are included in the base metal
lattice (the general arrangement of individual atoms)
in various ways depending upon the relative sizes of
the atoms.
 Smaller atoms, such as carbon, nitrogen and
hydrogen, tend to occupy sites be interstitial.

Alloying
 Alloying elements with atoms close to the size of
those of the base metal tend to occupy substitutional
sites.
 Nearly all engineering metals are alloys consisting of
one major element and variable amounts of one or
more additional elements. Alloys usually consist of
many randomly oriented grains with each grain
arranged in a specific way and containing one or
more of the characteristic phases that exist for the
alloy.

Microstructural
Constituents of
Carbon Steel
 The overall arrangement of grains, grain boundaries,
and phases present in a metallic alloy is called its
microstructure.
 This microstructure is affected by the composition or
alloy content, and by other factors such as forming
and heat treating operations
 Iron and steels undergo changes in their
crystallographic arrangement as a result of
temperature changes.

Microstructural
Constituents of
Carbon Steel
 This allows us to change the mechanical

properties of a specific alloy through he
application of various heat treatments.
 "Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram"
 Ferrite,
 Austenite,
 Cementite

Microstructural
Constituents of
Carbon Steel
 Hypoeutectoid, eutectoid and hypereutectoid types

 At 723 C, the horizontal line representing
transformation temperature is referred to as the AC1
 Transformation will occur over a range of
temperatures with complete transformation occurring
only when the temperature is raised above the
sloping line designated as the A3.

Microstructural
Constituents of
Carbon Steel
 Pearlite can only occur when sufficient time is

allowed for the atoms to diffuse into that
arrangement.
 Diffusion is simply the migration of the atoms within
the solid metal structure.
 When the cooling from the austenitic range occurs
more rapidly, there are significant changes in this
transformation for a given steel alloy.

Microstructural
Constituents of
Carbon Steel
 Upon rapid cooling, principal microstructures

produced include fine pearlite, bainite and
martensite.
 However, martensite has characteristically the low
ductility and toughness.
 To improve the ductility and toughness without
significantly decreasing the hardness and tensile
strength of the martensite, a process referred to as
tempering is employed.

Microstructural
Constituents of
Carbon Steel
 TTT diagram, or Time-Temperature-

Transformation diagram. These are also
called isothermal transformation diagrams
(ITT).
 A similar diagram, the CCT, or Continuous
Cooling Transformation.
 Critical cooling Rate.

Iron-Carbon Diagram
Temperature
C%
TTT Diagram
Temperature
Dr. Eng. Hamed

TimeA. Nagy
Sensitization, Weld Decay
Intergranular Attack
Temperature
%c
Time

Heat Treatments
 The basic heat treatments include annealing,
normalizing, quenching, tempering, preheat, post
heat and thermal stress relief.
 Annealing is a softening treatment used to increase
the metal's ductility at the expense of its strength.
 Metal is raised just into the austenitic range,

Heat Treatments
 held for one our per inch of thickness or a

minimum of one hour,
 and then cooled very slowly.
 Normalizing also softens the metal, but not
as significantly as annealing.
 The only difference is cooling in still air.

Heat Treatments
 Quenching differs from annealing and normalizing in
that the resulting mechanical properties show
significantly increased hardness and strength and
decreased ductility.
 By immersing the part in a quenching medium, such
as water, oil or brine (salt water).
 To improve the ductility without significant
degradation of the metal's strength characteristics, a
tempering treatment is usually performed.

Heat Treatments
 Reheated to a temperature below the lower

transformation temperature,
 held for a short time to allow the highly
stressed martensitic structure to relax
somewhat, and then cooled.
 Preheat treatments.
 Thermal stress relief,

Diffusion
 Atoms in the liquid state can move about

easily with respect to each other; Increases
with temperature.
 Major examples, Hydrogen Embrittlement
and Sensitization.

Solid Solubility
 Metals behave similar to sugar in water except
through diffusion, and they 'dissolve' into each other
when both are solid.
 Critical solubility limit is dependent on temperature.
 Added carbon in the steel's surface makes the
surface much harder, and is useful for resisting wear
and abrasion. 'pack carburizing'.

Alloy Groups
 Steels can be divided into three subcategories: plain carbon
steels, low-alloy steels, and high alloy steels.
 Based on tonnage, plain carbon steels are the most widely
used.
 They contain primarily iron but also small additions of carbon,
manganese, phosphorus, sulfur and silicon.
 Compositions of some of stainless steel types, which are
divided into five groups, austenitic, martensitic, ferrite,
precipitation hardening, and the duplex grades.

Alloying Elements-
Carbon
 is generally considered to be the most

important alloying element in steel (up to 2%)
 Most welded steels have less than 0.5%.
 Carbon can exist either dissolved in the iron,
or in a combined form such as iron carbide
(Fe3C).

Carbon
 Increased amounts of carbon increase

hardness and tensile strength, as well as
response to heat treatment (harden ability).
 On the other hand increased amounts of
carbon reduce weldability.

Sulfur
 Is usually an undesirable impurity in steel rather than
an alloying element. In amounts exceeding 0.05% it
tends to cause brittleness and reduce weldability.
Alloying additions of sulfur in amounts from 0.10 to
0.30% will tend to improve the machinability of a
steel.
 Such types may be referred to as "resulfurized" or
"free-machining". (not intended for use where
welding is required).

Phosphorus
 is generally considered to be an undesirable impurity
in steels. It is normally found in amounts up to 0.04%
in most carbon steels.
 In hardened steels, it may tend to cause
embitterment.
 In low-alloy high-strength steels, phosphorus may be
added in amounts up to 0.10% to improve both
strength and corrosion resistance.

Silicon
 Usually only small amounts (0.20%) are present in
rolled steel when it is used as a deoxidizer.
 In steel castings, 0.35 to 1.00% is commonly
present.
 Silicon dissolves in iron and tends to strengthen it.
 Weld metal usually contains approximately 0.50%
silicon as a deoxidizer.

Silicon
 Some filler metals may contain up to 1% to provide
enhanced cleaning the deoxidation for welding on
contaminated surfaces.
 When these filler metals are used for welding of
clean surfaces, the resulting weld metal strength will
be markedly increased:
 The resulting decrease in ductility could present
cracking problems in some situations.

Manganese
 Steels usually contain at least 0.30% manganese
because it acts in a threefold manner:
 (1) assists in the deoxidation of the steel.
 (2) prevents the formation of iron sulfide inclusions
and
 (3) promotes greater strength by increasing the
hardenability of the steel. Amounts up to 1.5% are
found in carbon steels.

Chromium
 is a powerful alloying element in steel.
 It is added for two principle reasons; first, it strongly
increase the hardenability of steel, and second, it
markedly improves the corrosion resistance of alloys
in oxidizing media.
 But could cause excessive hardness and cracking in,
and adjacent to the weld.
 Stainless steels contain chromium in amounts
exceeding 12%.

Molybdenum
 This element is a strong carbide former and is

usually present in alloy steels in amounts less than
1.0%.
 it is added to increase hardenability and elevated
temperature strength.
 It is added to the austenitic stainless steels to
improve pitting corrosion resistance.

Nickel
 Great
 is added to steels to increase their hardenability.
 It performs well in this function because it often
improves the toughness and ductility of the steel,
even with the increased strength and hardness.
 Nickel is frequently used to improve a steel's
toughness at low temperatures.

Aluminum
 Is added to steel in very small amounts as a

deoxidizer.
 It is also a grain refiner for improved
toughness; steels with moderate aluminum
additions are referred to as having been
made to a 'fine grain practice'.

Vanadium
 Increases the hardenability of a steel.

 In amounts greater than 0.05%, there may
be a tendency for the steel to become
embitter during thermal stress relief
treatments.

Niobium (Columbium)
 like vanadium, is generally considered to increase

the hardenability of a steel. However, due to its
strong affinity for carbon, it may combine with carbon
in the steel to result in an overall decrease in
hardenability.
 It is added to austenitic stainless steels as a
stabilizer to improve as-welded properties.

Dissolved Gases
 Hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen
 All dissolve in molten steel and can embrittle steel if
not removed.
 Steel refining processes are designed to eliminate as
much of these gases as possible.
 Special fluxes or shielding gases are used to prevent
their solution in the molten weld metal.

Effect of Alloying Elements
Austenite/ Ferrite Stabilization
Delta Ferrite
Stabilizers:
Cr, Si, Mo, P
Temperature
Austenite
Stabilizers:
Ni, C, N
%C

Capson Curve (SCC)
Temperature
%Ni

Temperature

% Cr

Steel
Part I- Mechanical Properties
Dr. Eng. Hamed A.

Nagy
Syllabus
 Mechanical Properties.
 Corrosion Resistance.
 Steel Make-up.
 Cast Iron.
 Carbon and Low Alloy Steel.
 High Alloy Steel.
 Code Application.
Slection of Steel or
Iron Grade
– Strength/ weight ratio.
– Cost per mass or per area.
– Melting point.
– Corrosion and oxidation resistance.
– Stress Corrosion.
– Corrosion Fatigue.
– Compatibility.
– Electrical and magnetic properties.
– Fabrication properties..
– Complexity, section and thickness, weldability.

Slection of Steel or
Iron Grade
Choice of one grade of steel for certain application
depends on several factors:
– Strength at room and elevated temperature.
– Toughness and notch sensitivity.
– Embrittlement in service.
– Brittleness at cryogenic temperatures.
– Rigidity.
– Size and mass effect.
– Fatigue strength.
– Surface hardness.

Introductory
 There are thousands of different steel grades
available to serve.
 Materials engineers and designers are able to
choose the grades which best suit their particular
needs.
 Grades may differ not only in their composition but
also in the manner in which they are manufactured.
 There are several organizations maintaining material
standards, such as ASTM, ASME and AWS.

Introductory
 Additionally, there are material standards from many
other countries and groups including Japan and
European counties.
 Depending upon the mechanical and chemical
properties of a metal, special fabrication techniques
may be required to prevent the degradation of these
properties.
 Effective monitoring can prevent problems caused by
the alteration of expected properties from too much
or too little heat.

Tensile Properties
 Strength.
 Ductility.
 Hardness.
 Toughness.
 Fatigue Resistance.

Stress Strain Curve
Stress
Strain
Strength
 Ability of a material to withstand an applied load.
 Tensile strength, shear strength, torsion strength, impact
strength and fatigue strength.
 The tensile strength of a metal is described as the ability of a
metal to resist failure when subjected to a tensile, or pulling
load.
 Ultimate tensile strength, UTS. (sometimes referred to as
simply tensile strength) relates to the maximum load carrying
capacity of that metal, or the strength of that metal at the exact
point when failure occurs.
 Yield strength.

Stress Strain
Behavior
 Elastic behavior refers to the deformation of a metal
under load which causes no permanent deformation
when the load is removed.
 In this elastic range, the amount of stretch is directly
proportional to the applied load, so elastic behavior
is referred to as being 'linear' when a metal behaves
elastically, it can be stretched to some point and
returns to its original length when the applied load is
removed. That is, it takes on no permanent
deformation, or set.

Stress Strain
Behavior
 Plastic Behavior means permanent deformation
occurs. It also implies the stress-strain relationship is
no longer linear.
 The point at which the material's behavior changes
from elastic to plastic is referred to as its yield point.
 ksi or MPa. (psi).
 As temperature increases, the strength of a metal
decreases.

Stress Strain Curve
Stress
Strain
Ductility
 Ductility relates to the ability of a material to deform,
or stretch, under load without failing. The more
ductile a metal is, the more it will stretch before it
breaks.
 Ductility can affect whether the metal fails gradually
or suddenly when loaded.
 'ductile' Vs. 'brittle'
 Ductility becomes an even more important property
for a metal which must undergo subsequent forming
operations.
Stress Strain Curve
Stress
Strain
Directionality
 Ductility and strength can differ in magnitude versus the
direction in which the load is applied relative to direction of
rolling of material during its original manufacture.
 Rolling causes the crystals, or grains, to be elongated in the
direction of rolling much more than in the direction transverse,
or across, the rolling direction.
 In the transverse direction of the material, the strength may be
decreased as much as 30% and the ductility reduced as much
as 50%, relative to the properties of the rolling direction.

Stress Strain Curve
Temperature
Stress
Strain
Directionality
 In the through-thickness direction, the

strength and ductility are even less. For
some steels, the ductility in this direction is
very low.
 The ductility is usually expressed in two
ways: percent elongation and percent
reduction of area.

Hardness
 Hardness is one of the most commonly and easily measured
mechanical property.
 It is the ability of a material to resist indentation, or penetration.
 Hardness and strength are directly related for carbon steels.
 Some type of indenter is forced into the surface of the metal by
an applied load.
 Tests differ in the type and shape of indenter used as well as
the magnitude of the applied load.
 Hardness is determined as a function of either the depth or the
size of the indentation.

Toughness
 Toughness is the ability of a material to absorb
energy.
 Toughness of the metal can be determined by
calculating the area under the stress-strain curve.
 Another common term is notch toughness.
 Material's energy-absorbing ability when there are
surface flaws present.
 Notch toughness is referred to as impact strength.

Toughness
 If a metal exhibits a high amount of notch

toughness, this means it will perform well
whether or not there is a notch present.
 Most important is the temperature at which
the fracture behavior changes from ductile to
brittle.
 (metal's transition temperature).

Impact Temperature Curve
Absorbed
Energy
Temperature
DBTT
Energy
Ni
Temperature

Fatigue
 Metal fatigue is caused by a cyclic or repeating
mechanical action on a member. That is, the load
alternately changes between a high stress and some
lower stress, or a stress reversal.
 The fatigue strength of a metal is defined as that
strength necessary to resist failure under repeated
load applications
 The fatigue strength can be determined through
fatigue testing.

Fatigue
 Most common type of testing is referred to as
'reverse bending'.
 S-N curve.
 These curves show that steel exhibits a well-defined
endurance limit, but the curve for the aluminum does
not.
 The endurance limit. is the maximum stress at which
no failure will occur, no matter how many cycles the
load is applied.

Fatigue
 Fatigue strength, like impact strength, is

extremely dependent upon the surface
geometry of the member.
 A surface discontinuity will more quickly lead
to fatigue failure than will a subsurface
discontinuity. Role of inspection.

S-N Curve (Steel)
Maximum
stress (S)
Number of Cycles to Failure (N)

S-N Curve (Aluminum)
Maximum
stress (S)
Number of Cycles to Failure (N)

Destructive Testing
 There are numerous tests used to determine

the various mechanical and chemical
properties values for more than one property.
 Destrucive tests render the material or part
useless for service once the test has been
performed.

Tensile Test
 Ultimate Tensile Strength
 Yield Strength
 Ductility
 Percent Elongation
 Percent Reduction of Area
 Modulus of Elasticity
 Proportional Limit
 Elastic Limit

Tensile Test
 One of the most important aspects of that test
involves the preparation of the tensile specimen.
 Gripping section
 Roundness
 Uniformity of cross section in the gage length.
 Thickness.
 Freedom of surface from irregularities.

Tensile Specimen

Tensile Test
 Rate of loading.
 Sometimes, the sole purpose of the tensile test of a
welded sample is to simply show if the weld zone will
perform as well as the base metal.
 This approach is used for procedure and welder
qualification testing in accordance with API 1104.
 Strength will be calculated by dividing the applied
load by the original cross sectional area.

Tensile Test
 Percent elongation refers to the amount that the
specimen has stretched between two gage marks'
during the tensile test. It is calculated by dividing the
difference between the final and original length
between the marks by the original length, and
multiplying the result by 100 to represent
percentage.
 When a ductile specimen is subjected to a tensile
test, a portion of it will exhibit "necking." Also,
percent reduction of area.

Tensile Test
 Slope within the elastic zone is the modulus of
elasticity.
 The higher the modulus of elasticity, the stiffer the
metal.
 For a metal exhibiting drastic change behavior, the
yield strength is the stress corresponding to the
upper yield point, or some point midway between the
upper and lower yield points. "drop-beam" technique.
 'Cold working'.
 Work hardening.

Tensile Test
 Offset method is used for less ductile

material to determine 0.2% offset yield
stress.
 Toughness can be determined by the area
under the stress-strain diagram.
 For ductility, we most often see percent
elongation specified if only a single method is
used.
Hardness Test
 Three basic groups of indentation hardness tests
shall be discussed, Brinell. Rockwell and micro
hardness.
 The Brinell is the largest and micro hardness is the
smallest.
 The Brinell method is commonly used for
determining the hardness of metal stock.
 As Brinell tests assist in reducing errors produced by
surface irregularities.

Hardness Test
 Prior to Brinell testing, grinding or sanding the
surface to achieve a relatively flat test area.
 Since this is a mathematical relationship, a BHN can
be determined with variety of indenter types and
loads.
 For carbon and low alloy, the BHN times 500 is
approximately equal to the metal's tensile strength.
 A common Brinell test uses a 10 millimeter (mm)
hardened steel ball and a 3000 kilogram (kg) load.

Hardness Test
 Other types of balls which can be used include the 5
mm hardened steel ball and the 100 mm tungsten
carbide ball. For soft metals, loads as low as 500 kg
may be used.
 Other loads between 500 and 32000 kg can also be
used with equivalent results.
 Field testing with the Brinell method often uses a
hammer blow to create indentations in both the test
piece and a calibration block of known hardness.

Hardness Test
(Brinell)
 Usual steps for Brinell testing are :-

 Prepare test surface.
 Apply test load.
 Hold at load for prescribed time.
 Measure impression diameter.
 Determine BHN from table.

Hardness Test
(Brinell)
 We should hold at the test load for some

specified time.
 For iron and steel, this will be 10 to 15
seconds.
 Softer metals require holding times of
approximately 30 seconds.

Hardness Test
(Rockwel)
• Used for thin and heavily formed sections.
 The indenters used are the diamond Brale
and 1/16, 1/8, 1/4, and 1/2 inch diameter
hardened steel balls.
 The Rockwell tests result in smaller
indentations than Brinell testing.
 Loads range from 50 to 150 kg.

Hardness Test
(Rockwel)
 The "B" and "C" scales are by far the most
commonly sued scales for steel, with the "B" scale
chosen for softer alloys.
 A variation in this depth measurement of only
0.00008 inch will result in a change of one Rockwell
number.
 Basic test steps:
 Prepare test surface.
 Place test object in Rockwell tester.

Hardness Test
(Rockwel)
 Apply minor load using elevating screw.
 Apply major load.
 Release major load.
 Read dial.
 Release minor load and remove part.
 There are also portable units which can be
used to determine the Rockwell hardness
of a metal.
Microhardness Test
 Very beneficial in the investigation of metal

microstructures, because they can be
performed on single grains of a metal to
determine the hardness in the microscopic
region.
 There are two major types of microhardness
tests. Vickers and Knoop.

Microhardness Test
 Loads will range from 1 to 1000 grams (g).

However, the majority of microhardness tests
use loads in the range of 100 to 500 g.
 Normally, for microhardness testing, the
sample surface is prepared just as it would
be for other metallographic investigations.

Impact Test
 The standard specimen used for Charpy test is a bar
55 mm long and 10 mm by 10 mm square.
 One of the long sides of the specimen has a carefully
machined V-shaped notch 2 mm deep. At the base
of this notch, there is a radius of precisely 0.25 mm.
 Reduced cross section sizes commonly sued when
the metal sample include the three quarter, half and
one quarter samples.

Impact Test
 Using these subsize samples; the roughness data
generated data from standard sized samples for the
same material due to the mass effect.
 Once the specimen has been carefully machined, it
is then cooled to the prescribed test temperature, if it
is a temperature below room temperature.
 Charpy impact tester consists of a pendulum with a
striker head, an anvil, a release lever, a pointer and
scale.

Impact Test
 While most Charpy results are expressed in

terms of foot-pounds of energy absorption,
there are other means of describing the
notch toughness of a metal.
 Lateral expansion and percent shear area.

Welding Metallurgy: Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy

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Welding Metallurgy

 Mechanical properties of a metal can be

 Atoms are so small that they cannot be seen, even

Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy

Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy

 Liquid metal has a higher internal energy with

Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy

Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy

Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy

Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy

Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy

Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy

 This allows us to change the mechanical

Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy

 Hypoeutectoid, eutectoid and hypereutectoid types

Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy

 Pearlite can only occur when sufficient time is

Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy

 Upon rapid cooling, principal microstructures

Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy

 TTT diagram, or Time-Temperature-

Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy

Dr. Eng. Hamed

Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy

Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy

 held for one our per inch of thickness or a

Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy

Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy

 Reheated to a temperature below the lower

Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy

 Atoms in the liquid state can move about

Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy

Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy

Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy

 is generally considered to be the most

Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy

 Increased amounts of carbon increase

Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy

Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy

Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy

Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy

Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy

Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy

Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy

 This element is a strong carbide former and is

Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy

Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy

 Is added to steel in very small amounts as a

Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy

 Increases the hardenability of a steel.

Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy

 like vanadium, is generally considered to increase

Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy

Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy

Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy

Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy

Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy

Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy

Dr. Eng. Hamed A.

Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy

Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy

Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy

Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy