MARIO FABIÁN EK ESTRADA

HEAT TREATMENTS

MI51BIS

UNITY 2

MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY

23/06/2022
Heat Treatments of Steel.
Heat treatments aim to improve the properties and characteristics of steels,
and consist of heating and maintaining steel parts or tools at suitable
temperatures for a certain time and then cooling them in suitable conditions. In
this way, the microscopic structure of the steels is modified, physical
transformations are verified and sometimes there are also changes in the
composition of the metal.
Time and temperature are the main factors and must always be determined in
advance, according to the composition of the steel, the shape and size of the
pieces and the characteristics that are desired.
Most used heat treatments.
The most used heat treatments are:
-Annealing
-Temper
-Normalized
-Tempering
-Cementation
-Nitriding
-Tempering in salt baths
-Tempering in lead baths

Annealing:
With this name several treatments are known whose main objective is to soften
the steel; other times it is also desired to regenerate its structure or eliminate
internal tensions. They consist of heating to suitable temperatures, generally
followed by slow cooling. The different kinds of anneals used in the industry
can be classified into three groups: Anneals with complete austenitization,
anneals with subcritical and incomplete austenitization.
Complete austenitization or regeneration anneals.- In this case, heating is done
at a temperature slightly higher than the upper critical temperature and then the
material cools very slowly. It serves to soften the steel and regenerate its
structure.
Subcritical annealing.- Heating is done below the lower critical temperature, the
cooling rate not having as much importance as in the previous case, and the
steel can even be cooled in air without hardening. By means of this treatment
the tensions of the material are eliminated and its ductility is increased.

Three classes of subcritical anneals can be distinguished:

Softening
Against Globular acrimony
Softening annealing.- Its main purpose is to soften the steel by a fast and
economic procedure. With this treatment, the lowest hardnesses are not
usually obtained, but in many cases those that are achieved are sufficient to
machine the materials perfectly.
The process consists of heating the steel to a temperature that, being lower
than the critical Ac1, is as high as possible and then cooling it in air. The
hardnesses obtained in certain high-alloy tool and construction steels after this
treatment are sometimes too high for machining.
Hardening annealing.- It is carried out at temperatures of 550° to 650°, and its
main purpose is to increase the ductility of steels with low carbon content (less
than 0.40%) cold striated. With heating at this temperature, the elongated
crystallization of the ferrite is destroyed, appearing new polyhedral crystals
more ductile than the original ones, which allow the material to be stretched or
rolled again without difficulty. Cooling is usually done in the air.
Globular subcritical annealing.- Sometimes to obtain a globular structure of
very low hardness in carbon and low alloy steels, somewhat similar to that
obtained in annealing, the steels are subjected to heating at lower temperatures
but very close to the critical Ac1, after which the steel must be cooled slowly in
the furnace.
Incomplete austenitization anneals (globular).- They are treatments that are
usually given to alloyed carbon steels, with more than 0.50% carbon, to soften
them and improve their machinability. They consist of prolonged heating at
intermediate temperatures between the upper and lower critical temperatures,
always followed by slow cooling. The aim pursued with these anneals is to
obtain the lowest possible hardness and a favorable microscopic structure for
machining the parts.
By means of these treatments, it is quite easy to achieve in hypereutectoid
steels that the cementite and the alloy carbides adopt a more or less globular
arrangement that gives each composition a much lower hardness than any
other microstructure, including lamellar pearlite.
Sometimes annealing is done using an oscillating cycle of temperatures that
are sometimes higher and sometimes lower than Ac1. Other times (which are
usually the majority) temperatures slightly higher than Ac1 are used. The first of
these treatments is often simply called oscillating globular annealing and the
second is simply called incomplete austenitization annealing.
In hypoeutectoid steels it is somewhat more difficult to obtain globular
structures, which on the other hand are generally not as interesting as in
hypereuctoid steels. However, with prolonged stays and temperature
fluctuations, these structures are also achieved in low carbon content steels.
Recently, globular structures have begun to be required in numerous
construction and low-alloy steels. A typical case is a carbon steel for fasteners
that is threaded to be cold rolled.

Normalized:
This treatment consists of heating to a temperature slightly higher than the
upper critical, followed by cooling in still air. In this way, the steel is left with a
structure and properties that are arbitrarily considered normal and characteristic
of its composition. It is often used for parts that have been cold worked,
unevenly cooled, or overheated, and also serves to destroy the effects of
previous faulty treatment. Through normalizing, internal stresses are eliminated
and the grain size of the steel is standardized. It is used almost exclusively for
carbon or low-alloy construction steels.

Temper:
In metallurgy and engineering, a low-temperature process in the heat treatment
of steel that achieves the desired balance between hardness and toughness in
the finished product. Steel articles hardened by heating to about 900°C and
rapidly cooling in oil or water become hard and brittle. Reheating them to a
lower temperature reduces their hardness but improves their toughness. The
proper balance between hardness and toughness is achieved by controlling the
temperature to which the steel is reheated and the duration of heating. The
temperature is determined with an instrument known as a pyrometer; in the
past it was done by observing the color of the oxide layer that formed on the
metal during heating.
There are several types of tempering, classified according to the desired result
and depending on the property that almost all steels have called hardenability
(tempering penetration capacity), which in turn depends, fundamentally, on the
diameter or thickness. Of the part and the quality of the steel.
The term quenching is also used to describe a cold working process that
increases the hardness of the metal, especially in the case of low carbon steels
and non-ferrous metals.
Steel tempering is carried out in three steps: heating to tempering temperature,
detention at this temperature and rapid cooling. The quenching is achieved
when reaching the austenitization temperature and also when all the crystals
that make up the mass of the steel are transformed into austenite crystals, since
it is the only constituent structure of the material that, when cooled rapidly, is
transformed into martensite, a structure that gives maximum hardness to a
hypoeutectoid steel.
Steels with less than 0.3% carbon do not take quenching because when they
are quickly cooled from the austenitization temperature, they set non-
martensitic structures such as: Perlite and Ferrite.
The austenitization temperature is variable, depending on the percentage of
carbon contained in the steel. According to a diagram called Carbon Iron, a
zone called hypoeutectoid is distinguished, to which steels with carbon
percentages below 0.83% up to 0.008% belong, and another higher than these
called hypereutectoid.

Quenching or austenitization temperature.

In the case of hypoeutectoid steels, the recommended austenitizing
temperature is about 30 degrees Celsius above their upper critical temperature,
Ac3. This temperature is the same as that indicated for another heat treatment
such as annealing. If heating occurs at temperatures below A3, a certain
amount of proeutectoid ferrite will remain untransformed; which after
hardening, will give rise to the existence of soft spots and a lower hardness.
In hypereutectoid carbon ordinaries, the austenitization temperature is normally
found on the Acm and A3 lines (as shown in the iron-carbon diagram). The Acm
line has such a steep slope, that for all of the proeutectoid cementite to
dissolve, it requires very high temperatures with the consequent development of
the austenitic grain size and the formation of a coarse and detrimental phase
that can give rise to the appearance of cracks on cooling.

Asutenite homogeneity.
When speaking of austenite homogeneity, it refers to the uniformity that the
austenite grains present in terms of carbon content. If a hypoeutectoid-type
steel is heated to quenching temperature, when the heating crosses the AC1
line, the austenite grains formed by transformation of pearlite will contain 0.8%
carbon. As heating continues, the proeutectoid ferrite will dissolve and the
austenite grains formed will contain very little carbon, so when the Ac3 line is
crossed, the carbon content of the austenite grains will not be the same in all of
them. In quenching, the poorest austenite grains in carbon, as they have a high
critical quenching speed, will tend to transform into non-martensitic structures;
while those with a higher carbon content, having a low critical quenching speed,
will be transformed into martensitic. This gives rise to the fact that the
microstructure formed is not uniform and has a variable hardness. This
inconvenience can be avoided by heating the material very slowly, whereby the
carbon has enough time to diffuse, obtaining a uniform microstructure. But due
to the excessive duration of this process, it does not apply industrially. A more
suitable process consists of keeping the material for a certain time at the
austenitization temperature, since at said temperature the carbon diffuses more
quickly and uniformities are achieved after a short period of time. However, as
established for annealing, to ensure that the carbon is completely diffused, it is
recommended to maintain the material at the austenitization temperature for
one hour per inch of diameter or thickness.

Martensite.
High carbon steels can assume three structures. The face-centered array has
carbon atoms (dark spheres) between the iron ones. At high temperatures
carbon dissolves in iron (austenite). If the material is cooled slowly, the carbons
no longer fit in and the crystals change to a body-centered cubic (ferrite)
structure, but if it is cooled rapidly (quenching), the carbon atoms become
trapped in the interstices and the crystals they turn out to be body centered
tetragonals (martensite) which are harder than ferrite.
Crystal lattice of the martensite phase of steel. The carbon is trapped in a
position where it does not fit in the body-centered cubic lattice, thus producing
elastic distortion.
It is a typical constituent of tempered steels, it is admitted that it is formed by a
supersaturated solid solution of carbon or alpha iron.
is obtained by rapidly cooling steels.
They have a resistance of 170 to 250 kg/mm2
A hardness of 50 to 60 Rockwell
Elongation 2.5 to 0.5%
Is magnetic
Martensite was given by Osmond in honor of Martens.

Temple medium.
In view of the heat dissipation mechanism, the ideal quenching medium would
be one that is capable of initially imparting to the steel a cooling rate higher than
the critical one so that there is no possibility of transformation taking place in the
area corresponding to the pearlitic nose of the T-I diagram, and then in the
lower temperature zone, a low cooling rate so that deformations do not appear.
Unfortunately, no medium exists that exhibits these ideal properties.
Thus, in water and aqueous solutions of inorganic salts, stages 1 and 2 high
initial cooling rates are achieved, but unfortunately these are maintained during
cooling at low temperatures with the consequent danger of cracks and
deformations appearing. In normal quench oils, stage 1 or vapor blanket
cooling is longer, while stage 2 is shorter, with the cooling rate being lower.
The different quenching media used in the industry, ordered according to the
severity of quenching from highest to lowest, are the following:
-Aqueous solution with 10% sodium chloride (brine)
.Running water
-Liquid or molten salts
-Aqueous solutions of sulfonated oil
-Oil
-Air

Tempered.
 The steels, after the tempering process, tend to be brittle for most of the uses
to which they are going to be destined. Furthermore, the formation of
martensite gives rise to considerable stresses in the steel. Therefore, the
pieces, after hardening, are almost always subjected to tempering, which is a
process that consists of heating the steel to a temperature below the critical
temperature Ac1. The objective of tempering is to eliminate the internal
stresses of the material and increase the toughness and ductility of the steel,
even though this increase in ductility is normally achieved at the cost of a
decrease in hardness and resistance.
In general, it can be said that, within the wide range of tempering temperatures,
as the temperature increases, the hardness decreases and the toughness
increases. However, the latter is true when toughness is determined as a
function of the necking of a tensile specimen, because when it is measured as a
function of resilience, the same is not true.
In most steels, when the tempering temperature is between 204º and 426ºC,
the resilience, although simultaneously the hardness and resistance also
decrease.
The tempering temperature varies with the type of steel and the use and type
of stresses that the part must withstand. In general, the following intervals can
be indicated:
Case-hardening steels………………………………………. ………..140º to 200ºC

-Tool steels…………………………………………………….. …………200º to

300ºC

-Steels for quenching and tempering……………………………………… ….350º

to 650ºC

-High-speed steels………………………………………. ……………………..550º

to 580ºC
The duration of the tempering is of great importance so that the desired
transformations can take place safely. Generally it is from 1 to 3 hrs.
Measuring instruments, gauges, patterns, gauges, etc. They are tempered for
much longer, being able to reach the necessary durations, in many cases, up to
24 hours.

Tempering can be homogeneous and heterogeneous:

-Homogeneous: the piece as a whole is at a uniform temperature, it is done
after hardening, with oil baths, salts, air circulation and annealing ovens, when
temperatures are high. These are used in construction parts, mass production
and tools.
-Heterogeneous: the part is subjected to different tempering temperatures in
different parts; For this to be correct, the temperature must generally be
estimated on the basis of the temper colors. 2 procedures are used:
Auto tempering: the work surface is immersed in the quenching medium, it is
polished bright, quickly, after removing it from the bath
External tempering: the hardened piece is heated partially and non-uniformly
Induction tempering.

Induction tempering consists of achieving the same metallurgical effects as

tempering in a conventional furnace but with higher temperatures and shorter
times. The tempering temperatures normally used in induction are of the order
of 200 to 400ºC. Heating times in induction tempering are closely related to the
geometry of the part, it is very important that the entire area to be tempered is at
the same temperature, consequently, in parts with simple geometry, tempering
times are usually lower than those of more complicated parts. At the end of
induction heating, the part is usually cooled in air to a temperature of approx.
Of 100ºC, below this temperature the tempering process is complete, then the
cooling is usually accelerated by showering or immersion in a liquid.

Tempering Objectives.
It modifies the mechanical properties: steel that has been hardened is very
strong but has low ductility and toughness, but if it is reheated to temperatures
between room temperature and 700ºC, and then cooled in air, the hardness and
resistance to Tensile strength decreases as the tempering temperature rises
and at the same time ductility and toughness increase. Resilience or shock
resistance increases notably when tempering is done at temperatures greater
than 450ºC.
Modifies the physical properties: the steels, due to the transformations they
undergo during tempering, generally contract but also

Dilate.
Modifies the chemical properties: These modifications are due to changes in
microstructures that decompose the martensite that is obtained in the tempering
and that is transformed into other more stable constituents.

Double tempered.
With double tempering, the performance of tools made with high-speed steels
and high-chromium content steels is increased, with this it is possible to reduce
internal stresses before putting the tools into service, the steel is heated to
550ºc approx. With this the martensite is tempered. The microstructure is
uniform and is made up of tempered martensite and in high speed steels in the
microstructure there are undissolved complex carbides.
Isothermal treatments of steels.- This name receives certain treatments, in
which the cooling of the pieces is not done in a progressive regular way, but is
interrupted or modified at various temperatures during certain intervals, in which
the material remains at constant temperature during certain intervals, in which
the material remains at a constant temperature for a time, which depends on
the composition of the steel, the mass of the pieces and the results that are to
be obtained.
Austempering or isothermal transformation of austenite in the 250°-600° zone.-
This treatment consists of heating the steel to a temperature slightly higher than
the upper critical temperature and then rapidly cooling it in lead or molten salts,
at temperatures between 250 ° and 600 °, the steel remaining in the bath at this
temperature for sufficient time to verify the complete transformation of austenite
into other constituents at constant temperature. A treatment of this kind, called
“patenting”, has been applied for a long time for the manufacture of certain high-
resistance wires, which are generally known by the name of “piano wire”.

In this case, cooling is usually done in a lead bath, leaving the

steel with exceptional toughness and ductility.
Martempering.- It is a treatment that has also begun to develop very recently.
It is a stepped quenching in which the hot material, at a temperature slightly
higher than the upper critical temperature, is cooled in a bath of salts, also hot,
at temperatures between 200° and 400°, the pieces remaining in it for a time
that must be carefully controlled and that must be sufficient for the temperature
to equalize throughout the mass, before no part of it begins the transformation
of austenite, and then it is cooled in air. In this way, it is achieved that the
transformation of the entire mass of the steel takes place almost at the same
time, avoiding unequal and dangerous expansions that occur in ordinary
tempering, in which the transformations of the different areas of the material
occur at different times.
Isothermal annealing.- These are softening treatments that consist of heating
the steel above the upper or lower critical temperature depending on the case
(generally from 740° to 880°) and then cooling to a temperature of 600° - 700°,
which is It is kept constant for several hours, to achieve the complete isothermal
transformation of the austenite and finally, it is cooled in the air. This treatment
is very fast and very low hardnesses are obtained. Heating is usually done with
complete austenitization in hypoeutectoid steels and incomplete austenitization
in hypereutectoid steels. In a way, these treatments can be considered as
particular cases of complete and incomplete austenitization anneals.
Surface hardening.- This procedure has recently been developed in which only
the surface layer of the pieces is hardened. Heating can be done by flame or
by high-frequency induced currents, in both cases being able to perfectly
regulate the depth of heating and thus the penetration of the hardness. Once
the tempering temperature has been reached, it is generally cooled in water.

Treatments in which there is a change in composition.

In this kind of treatment, in addition to considering time and temperature as
fundamental factors, the environment or atmosphere that surrounds the metal
during heating and cooling must also be taken into account. These treatments
are usually used to obtain parts that must have high surface hardness to resist
wear and good core toughness. Treatments belonging to this group are:
Cementation.- By means of this treatment, the composition of the pieces is
modified, increasing the carbon content of the peripheral zone, obtaining later,
by means of quenching and tempering, a great surface hardness.
Cyanidation.- It is a treatment similar to cementation, in which the steel absorbs
carbon and nitrogen in the superficial zone, leaving that peripheral zone very
hard after a final hardening.
Sulfinization.- It is a treatment that is given to steels at approximately 565°C in
a bath of salts of special composition and that extraordinarily improves
resistance to wear. This improvement is achieved by incorporating sulfur to the
surface of the steel parts without greatly increasing the hardness.
Nitriding.- It is a surface hardening treatment at low temperature, in which the
hardened and tempered steel parts, when heated to 500° in contact with an
ammonia stream, which is introduced into the nitriding box, absorb nitrogen,
forming in the peripheral layer very hard nitrides, leaving the pieces very hard
without the need for any further treatment.
CONCLUSIÓN

At the end of this investigation, it can be concluded that heat treatments are a
very widespread tool in the industry, due to the fact that modern processes
require materials to have certain mechanical qualities, especially hardness and
toughness, that is when heat treatments find their paper. Although most of
these treatments are to improve mechanical qualities, there are also a few that
soften metals.

BIBLIOGRAFIC

Amstead, B. H. (2003). Procesos de manufactura version SI. México : CECSA .

Amstead, B. (2002). Procesos de manufactura version SI. México: CECSA.
Askeland, D. R. (1998). Ciencia e ingeniaria de los materiales . México:
Thomson .
Askeland, D. R. (2004). Ciencia e Ingenieria de los Materiales. México :
Thomson.