MATERIAL SCIENCE

MODULE-3
 Iron Carbide diagram
 Carbon is the most common alloying element in the iron
which significantly affects the allotrophy, structure and
properties of iron.

 Conventionally, the complete Fe – C diagram should extend

from 100% Fe to 100 % carbon (graphite), but it is normally
studied upto 6.67% carbon (Fe3C) because iron alloys of
practical industrial importance contain not more than 5%
carbon.

 Fe – Fe3C is not a true equilibrium diagram, since Fe3C (meta

stable) decomposes into Iron and Carbon which take a very
long time at room temperature and even at 700°C it takes
several years to form graphite.

 When the carbon content becomes more than solubility limits

of iron though carbon should be present as Graphite (lower
free energy than cementite) , yet cementite forms beacause
the formation of cementite is most probable kinetically i.e. it is
easier to from it, as only 6.67% C has to diffuse to segregate to
form cementite whereas 100% C segregation is required to
nucleate graphite.
 Ferrite: it is a i terstitial solid solutio of ar o i α - iron
(BCC).

 The maximum solubility of carbon in ferrite is 0.02 wt% at

727°C and the minimum is 0.00005 wt% at 20°C. the size of the
largest atom that can fit in octahedral void is 0.19 A°, which is
much smaller than carbon atom (0.71°A°). so the solubility is
exremely limited.

 It is soft and ductile. Ferrite is ferromagnetic upto 768°C

becomes paramagnetic above this temperature.

 Austenite: it is a i terstitial solid solutio of ar o i - iron

(FCC).
 The maximum solubility of carbon is 2.1 wt% at 1146°C which
decreses to 0.77 wt% at 727°C.

 The size of the largest atom that can fit in octahedral void is
0.52 A°. correspondingly the solubility is larger here compared
to ferrite. It is soft, ductile, malleable, tough and non-
magenetic.

 It is stable above 727°C in plain carbon steels but can be

obtained even at room temperature by adding elements like Ni
or Mn in steels.

 δ - ferrite: it is a i terstitial solid solutio of ar o i - iron

(BCC).

 The maximum solubility of carbon is 0.09 wt% at 1495°C. it is

paramagnetic.

 It is high te perature versio of α -iron.

 Cementite (Fe3C): It is an interstitial intermetllic compound

havinbg fixed carbon content of 6.67wt%. it has a complex
orthorhombic structure, with 12 Fe atoms and 4 C atoms per
unitcell. High hardness, brittle, very low tensile strenght and
high compressive strength. It is the hardest phase that appears
on the phase diagram.
Types of cast irons
 White cast iron

 Grey cast iron

 Malleable cast iron and

 Ductile cast iron

1. White cast iron

 When the white cast iron is fractured, white coloured cracks
are seen throughout because of the presence of carbide
impurities.
 White cast iron is hard but brittle.
 It has lower silicon content and low melting point.
 The carbon present in the white cast iron precipitates and
forms large particles that increase the hardness of the cast
iron.
 It is abrasive resistant as well as cost-effective.
 Applications: Nozzles, ball mills and cement mixers
2. Grey cast iron
 Grey cast iron is the most versatile and widely used cast iron.

 The presence of carbon leads to formation of graphite flakes

that does not allow cracks to pass through, when the material
breaks. Instead, as the material breaks the graphite initiates
numerous new cracks.

 The fractured cast iron is greyish in colour, which also gives it

the name.

 The graphite flakes make the grey cast iron exhibit low shock
resistance.

 They also lack elasticity and have low tensile strength.

  However, the graphite fakes gives the cast iron excellent
machinability, damping features as well as good lubricating
properties making them useful in many industrial applications.

 Applications: Agriculture, automobile, textile mills

3.Malleable cast iron

 Malleable cast iron is basically white cast iron that undergoes
heat treatment to convert the carbide into graphite.

 The resultant cast iron has properties that vary from both grey
and white cast iron.
  In case of malleable cast iron, the graphite structure is formed
into irregularly shaped spheroidal particles rather than flakes
that are usually present in gray cast iron.

 This makes the malleable cast iron behave like low-carbon

steel. .

 Malleable cast iron can be identified easily by the blunt

boundaries.

4.Ductile cast iron/ nodular cast iron

 Ductile cast iron is yet another type of ferrous alloy that is used
as an engineering material in many applications.

 To produce ductile iron, small amount of magnesium is added

to the molten iron, which alters the graphite structure that is
formed.

 The magnesium reacts with oxygen and sulphur in the molten

iron leading to nodule shaped graphite that has earned them
the name-nodular cast iron.

 Like malleable iron, ductile iron is flexible and exhibits a linear

stress strain relation.

 It can be casted in varied sizes and into varying thickness.

 Heat Treatment of Metals
• Heating a metal or alloy to various definite temperatures,
holding these for various time durations and cooling at various
rates.

• Combination of controlled heating and cooling determine not

only the nature and distribution of micro-constituents (which
determine the properties of a metal or alloy), but also the grain
size.

Purpose of heat treatment:

1.To remove or relieve strains or stresses induced by cold

working or non-uniform cooling (for example welding): Annealing

2. To increase strength or hardness of the material for

improved wear resistance: Hardening

3.To improve machinability: Annealing

4.To soften the material: Annealing

5. To decrease hardness and increase ductility and toughness.

(Tempering)

6.To improve the cutting properties of tools.

7. To change or modify the physical properties of the material

such as electrical properties, magnetic properties, corrosion
resistance and heat resistance etc.
Main Processes Include
• Annealing

• Full Annealing

• Isothermal Annealing

• Process Annealing

• Normalizing

• Hardening and Quenching

• Tempering

Annealing processes
• Annealing is a heat treatment process in which the material is
taken to a high temp. kept there for some time and then
cooled in furnace.

• Cooling is done slowly to avoid the distortion.

Benefits of annealing are:

• relieve stresses

• i rease soft ess, du tility a d tough ess

• produ e a spe ifi i rostru ture

• odify ele tri al a d ag eti properties

• Depending on the specific purpose, annealing is classified into
various types: process annealing, stress relief, full annealing
and normalizing.

Full annealing
• This consists of heating the steel to a temperature above the
transformation range, holding for one two hours and then
cooling at a predetermined rate to obtain the desired
microstructure. Grain refinement is accomplished in this
instance by the recrystallisation of the steel in passing through
the critical range in both heating and in cooling.

Isothermal annealing
• It is a type of full annealing in which the steel first is cooled to
the temperature at which it is desired to have transformation
occur, at a rate sufficiently rapid to prevent any structural
change above the temperature. The steel then is held at the
selected temperature for the time necessary to complete such
transformation.

Process annealing
• This consists of heating the steel to a temperature first under
lower critical point and holding at this temperature for the
proper time(usually 2 to 4 hours) followed by air cooling
 Spheroidisation
• This is accomplished by heating to a temperature just above
the critical point and cool very slowly through the critical range.

• This treatment is used for practically all steels containing over

0.6% carbon that are to be machined or cold formed.

͞In many cases, the ordinary annealing process is incapable of

reducing the hardness of many grades of all0y steel to a sufficient
degree. In such cases, isothermal annealing is employed for
increasing the machinability.

The process consists of two steps. First, the steel is heated above
the upper (or only the lower) critical point and held for some time
at this temperature. At this stage, austenite is formed in the metal.

Then the steel is rapidly cooled to a temperature 600 - 700°C, and is

held at this new temperature until the austenite is completely
decomposed to form pearlite. Finally, the steel is cooled in still air.

Since the decomposition of austenite takes place at constant

temperature, hence the name-isothermal annealing.

A more homogeneous structure of the metal is obtained and the

results of annealing are more stable.

Also, the cycle of heat treatment is substantially reduced in

isothermal annealing.͟
Normalizing
Main objective

1. Refine grain, improve machinability, tensile strength and

structure of weld.

2. Remove cold worked stress.

3. Remove dislocations due to hot working.

Process

• Heat the steel approximately 4°C above its upper critical temp,
held about fifteen minutes and then allowed to cool down in
still air.

• Homogeneous structure provides a higher yield point, ultimate

tensile strength and impact strength with lower ductility to
steels.

Hardening and Quenching

• Hardening is a process in which steel is heated to a
temperature above the critical point, held at this temperature
and Quenched (rapidly cooled) in water, oil or molten baths.

• If a piece of steel is heated above its upper critical temperature

and plunged into water to cool it an extremely hard, needle-
shaped structure known as martensite is formed. In other
words, sudden quenching of steel greatly increases its
hardness.
 Tempering
• Martensite structures formed by direct quenching of high
carbon steel are hard and strong, but unfortunately are also
brittle. They cannot be plastically deformed and have very little
toughness, and although strong are unable to resist impact
loads and are extremely sensitive to stress concentrations.
Some of the hardness and strength must be sacrificed to obtain
suitable ductility and toughness. This is done by tempering the
martensic steel.

TTT Diagram

Fig. TTT diagram for eutectoid transformation in Fe-C

Fig. Transformations involving austenite for Fe-C system
Bainite Formation
• Bainite is an intimate mixture of ferrite and cementite, as in
pearlite. Pearlte has alternate layers of ferrite and cementite. In
bainite however, cementite apparently exists as tiny spheroids
uniformly distributed throughout a ferrite matrix.

• In upper bainite(formed at temperatures just below the nose of

the TTT curve) there is evidence of some patterns in the
 cementite arrangement since the microstructure has a feathery
appearance.

• In lower bainite(formed at temperatures approaching Ms) the

cementite becomes too fine for resolution and an
acicular(needle like) pattern is formed.

• Bainite is normally harder, stronger and tougher than fine

pearlite of the same chemical composition(due to differences
in size, shape and distribution of cementite).

Martensite Formation
• The Martensite transformation occurs in a wide temperature
range. It begins at a temperature corresponding to a point
Ms(Martensite start). When the cooling process passes through
the point Ms, austenite begins to transform into martensite.

• The lower the temperature, the more martensite will be

formed.

• At a definite temperature for each steel, further transformation

of austenite into martensite ceases.

• This temperature is usually denoted as Mf(Martensite finish)

• The positions of points Ms and Mf do not depend upon cooling

rate and are determined by the chemical composition of
austenite.

• More carbon in steel lowers points Ms and Mf.

• A characteristic feature of martensite formation is that it is

practically never completed. Thus, a hardened steel contains
retained autenite.
• The higher the carbon content the more austenite will be
retained.

• The presence of retained austenite is undesirable as it has

detrimental effect on its mechanical properties.