Circulation systm

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Functions of the circulatory system:
-Distribute nutrients,
-Transport and exchange oxygen and carbon
dioxide,
-Remove waste materials
-Distribute secretions of endocrine glands
-Prevent excessive bleeding,
-Prevent infection
-Regulate body temperature.
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• Circulatory system consists of the heart,
blood vessels and blood
• Cardiovascular system refers only to the
heart and blood vessels
• Hematology – the study of blood
BLOOD : is a fluid tissue that circulates in
closed system (blood vessels)
The total volume of blood in normal healthy adult
is about 5.5 liters ( plasma 3 liters , erythrocytes
2.5 liters)
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Components and General Properties of
Blood
1 – liquid portion :
plasma .
2 – Cellular compound :
a – Erythrocytes
b –Leukocytes
c – platelets

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Separating Plasma From Formed Elements of
Blood
Withdraw • hematocrit - centrifuge blood to
blood
separate components
– erythrocytes are heaviest and
settle first
Centrifuge
37% to 52% total volume
– white blood cells and platelets
Plasma
(55% of whole blood)
1% total volume , buffy coat
– Plasma : the remainder of
Buffy coat: leukocytes
and platelets
volume47% - 63% .
(<1% of whole blood)
complex mixture of water,
Erythrocytes Formed
(45% of whole blood) elements proteins, nutrients,
electrolytes, nitrogenous
wastes, hormones, and gases
Hematocrit is : The fractional contribution of
erythrocytes to the blood

Plasma is : the most abundant component

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: plasma contains
: a – Proteins
. albumins , globulins , fibrinogen
: b - Small nutrients
glucose , lipids , amino acids
: c – Metabolic waste products
. urea , lactic acid
. d – gases : O2, CO2 , N2

. e – electrolytes : Na , K , Cl
 PLASMA PROTEINS
1 - Albumins :
- synthesized in the liver
-The most abundant plasma proteins .
- Responsible for the osmotic Pressure
Of plasma .
- affects the movement of fluid across
capillaries .

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 The globulins :
a – Transport lipids , steroid hormones .
B – play a critical role in the blood’s

ability to form clots .

C – important in defending the body
against foreign substances .

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 Fibrinogen:
a – synthesis in the liver
B – it is a key substance in the
formation of blood clots .

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 Blood Cell Development
Hemopoiesis : production of blood, specially
formed elements
Stem cells in bone marrow are unspecialized
cells that retain the capacity to divide
Some daughter cells of stem cells
differentiate to form blood cells
Body must continually replace blood cells
aida khiami
Cellular compound

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 Erythrocytes
red blood cells (RBCs ) are the most
abundant cells in the blood .
- numbering about 5 million per cubic
millimeter of blood .
- They are described a-biconcave disks
- RBCs contain spectrin which is a fibrous
protein .
- The spectrin is flexible, giving RBCs the
ability to bend and flex as necessary to
move through capillaries
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- The biconcave shape gives erythrocytes a
large surface area , important for exchange of
oxygen and CO2 between body cells and lung
tissues .
- The major function of erythrocytes is to
transport O2 & CO2 in the blood .
RBCs have a high capacity for carrying these gases
because they contain in their cytoplasm two protein :
hemoglobin & carbonic anhydrase .
- Hemoglobin binds & transport O2 &CO2
- carbonic anhydrase essential for transport of CO2
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 Hemoglobin is
the most abundant
protein in RBCs .
 Hb is : composed
of four polypeptide
chain of two types
( two alpha & two
beta ) .
 each of which has
heme group .
Each Hb can
bind four O2 .
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 LEUKOCYTES
LEUKOCYTES ( WBCs ) numbering
about 4000 – 10000 / cubic millimeter
.
LEUKOCYTES are nucleated cells.
Leukocytes are present in bloodstream
and in other body tissues ,due to their
mobility ,and migrate through tissue
to defend the body against invading
microorganisms and other foreign
materials .
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TYPES OF LEUKOCYTES
1 – Neutrophils .
2 – Eosinophils .
3 – Basophils .
4 – Monocytes .
5 – Lymphocytes .

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 Neutrophils - 1
• 50 – 80 % of blood Leukocytes are
neutrophils . and are the most
important defense activities in the
body .
• Phagocytic cells .
• Neutrophils circulate in the blood for
7 – 10 hours and then migrate into
the tissues ,where they live for only a
few days .
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 Eosinophils - 2
About 1- 4 % of all Leukocytes are
eosinophils .
They are phagocytic cells .
they discharging ‫حرر‬555‫ ت‬toxic molecules from
their cytoplasmic granules .

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 Basophils – 3
Basophile are
nonphagocytic
cels.
It releasing toxic
to damage
invaders

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 Monocytes- 4
It form 2-8 % of the leukocytes .it is
important for defenese.
It circulate for few hours in blood and
then migrate into tissues and
developed to very active phagocytic
cells(macrophages)

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 Lymphocytes - 5
It form 20 -40 % of all leukocytes .
It form 99% of cells found in
interstitial fluid.
It form three types B,T & Null cells .
Important in immune system.

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 The Heart

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 The heart is a cone-shaped, muscular
organ located in the thoracic cavity
between the lungs behind the
sternum.
 The heart muscle forms the
myocardium
 The pericardium is the outer
membranous sac with lubricating fluid.

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 The heart has four chambers:
- two upper, thin-walled atria, and
- two lower, thick-walled ventricles.
 The septum is a wall dividing the right and left
sides.
 Atrioventricular valves occur between the atria
and ventricles –
- the tricuspid valve on the right and
- the bicuspid valve on the left;
both valves are reinforced by chordae tendinae
attached to muscular projections within the
ventricles.
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 Semilunar valves
occur between the
ventricles and the
attached arteries
semilunar valves
allow blood to flow
from ventricle to
artery
( left ventricle to
aorta, and right
ventricle to
pulmonary trunk )
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AV valves open or close
in response to cyclic
changes in pressure that
occur with every heart
beat
when atrial pressure is
higher than ventricular
pressure , the valves open
 when ventricular
pressure becomes higher
than atrial pressure , the
valves close
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 The path of blood flow through
the heart and vasculature
• the vasculature is
divided into a
pulmonary circuit
which supplies blood
to the lungs and a
systemic circuit
which supplies blood
to all the other organs
and tissues of the
body
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• Blood is ejected
from the right
ventricle through
the pulmonary semi
lunar valve into
the pulmonary
trunk , which
divides into left and
right pulmonary
arteries, carrying
blood to the lungs

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• The pulmonary veins carry blood away from the
lungs and deliver it to the left atrium. From there
blood moves into the left ventricle,

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• the left ventricle pumps Blood into the aorta , which
delivers it to the systemic organs and tissues

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• . Blood returns to the heart by way of the venae
cavae, which carry it to the right atrium.From
there the blood enters the right ventricle.

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 The Heartbeat
 Each heartbeat is called a cardiac cycle.
 When the heart beats, the two atria contract
together, then the two ventricles contract;
then the whole heart relaxes.
 Systole is the contraction of heart chambers;
diastole is their relaxation.
 The heart sounds, are due to the closing of
the atrioventricular valves, followed by the
closing of the semilunar valves.

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• The wall of the left ventricle is much thicker
than the wall of the right ventricle , it allows it to
generate the force necessary to pump blood
throughout the body.

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 Electrical activity of the heart
• The heart muscle fibers
that make up the heart ‘s
conduction system are
specialized to initiate
action potentials and
conduct them rapidly
through the myocardium
If the heart of a frog is removed from the
body and all neural innervations are
severed,
it will still continue to beat as long as the
myocardial
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cells remain alive.
In a normal heart, only one region
demonstrates spontaneous electrical activity
and by this means functions as a pacemaker.
This pacemaker region is called the sino-
atrial node, or SA node.
The SA node is located in the right atrium,
near the opening of the superior vena cava.

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 Conduction and Contraction
 SA node in right atrium
is pacemaker SA node
 Electrical signals cause
contraction of atria
 Signal flows to AV node
and down septum to
ventricles
Pacemaker cells are different from other cells
because they can fire action potentials in the
absence of any external stimulus , and do so in
. a regular , periodic fashion
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 Control of the heartbeat by pacemakers
• the AV node rarely
has a chance to fire
an action potential
because when the SA
node fire an action
potential , cells in the
AV node go into a
refractory period and
because SA node has
a higher beat frequency

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if for some reason the SA node fails to fire an
action potential the AV node will initiate an
action potential , but with a lower frequency
and if the AV node is unable to drive
ventricular contraction certain cells in the
purkinje fibers can take over,.

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the cardiac cycle is divided into two distinct
periods :
• diastole ( ventricular relaxation ) during
which ventricular filling occurs , and
• systole ( ventricular contraction ) during
which the exit of blood from the ventricles
( ejection ) occurs.
• Aortic pressure varies throughout the
cardiac cycle , it rises to a maximum
during systole ( systolic pressure SP ) .
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• Heart rate is the number of times the heart
beats in one minute. The average adult
resting heart rate is 75 beats per minute
(bpm).
• Stroke volume is the amount of blood
pumped by each ventricle with each
heartbeat. The average adult resting stroke
volume is 70 ml per beat.
• Cardiac output is the amount of blood
pumped out by each ventricle in one minute.

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 cardiac output ( CO ) is depends on the
heart rate ( HR )and stroke volume : CO=
HR× SV.
 The heart is regulated by sympathetic and
parasympathetic neurons and hormones
( extrinsic control ) and
 by factors operating entirely within the heart
( intrinsic control )
 Thyroid hormones, ,insulin and glucagon
increase the force of myocardial contraction.
 sympathetic nervous system increases the
strength and rate of ventricular contractile
cells
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 The Blood Vessels
 The cardiovascular system
has three types of blood
vessels:
 Arteries (and arterioles) –
carry blood away from the
heart
 Capillaries – where nutrient
and gas exchange occur
 Veins (and venules) – carry
blood toward the heart.

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 The Arteries
 Arteries and arterioles take blood away from
the heart.
 The largest artery is the aorta.
 The middle layer of an artery wall consists of
smooth muscle that can constrict to regulate
blood flow and blood pressure.
 Arterioles lead to the capillaries where nutrient
and gas exchange with tissue fluid takes place.


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 Blood Flow in Arteries
 Blood pressure due to the pumping of the
heart accounts for the flow of blood in the
arteries.
 Systolic pressure is high when the heart
expels the blood.
 Diastolic pressure occurs when the heart
ventricles are relaxing.
 Both pressures decrease with distance
from the left ventricle because blood
enters more and more arterioles and
arteries.
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 The Capillaries
 Capillaries have walls only one cell thick to
allow exchange of gases and nutrients
with tissue fluid.

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 Blood Flow in Capillaries
 Blood moves slowly in capillaries because
there are more capillaries than arterioles.
 This allows time for substances to be
exchanged between the blood and tissues.

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 The Veins
 Venules drain blood from capillaries, then join
to form veins that take blood to the heart.
 Veins have much less smooth muscle and
connective tissue than arteries.
 Veins often have valves that prevent the
backward flow of blood when closed.
 Veins are large-diameter vessels with some
smooth muscle in wall

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 Blood Flow in Veins
 Venous blood flow is dependent upon:
1) skeletal muscle contraction
2) presence of valves in veins
3) respiratory movements.
 Compression of veins causes blood to
move forward past a valve that then
prevents it from returning backward.

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 Changes in thoracic and abdominal
pressure that occur with breathing also
assist in the return of blood.
 Varicose veins develop when the valves of
veins become weak.
 Hemorrhoids (piles) are due to varicose
veins in the rectum.

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 Hemostasis
 Blood vessel spasm, platelet plug
formation, blood coagulation
 Clotting mechanism
– Prothrombin is converted to thrombin
– Fibrinogen is converted to fibrin
– Fibrin forms net that entangles cells
and platelets

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 Blood Pressure
 Highest in arteries, lowest in veins
 Usually measured in the brachial artery
 Systolic pressure is peak pressure
– Ventricular contraction
 Diastolic pressure is the lowest pressure
– Ventricular relaxation

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