303322: Soil Mechanics: Introduction &properties of Soil

INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY
FOR SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

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CIVIL ENGINEERING AND

ENVIRONMENTAL DEPARTMENT
Lecture
303322: Soil Mechanics
1 Introduction &Properties of
Soil
Dr. Abdulmannan
Orabi
Reference
s
Das, B., M. (2014), “ Principles of
geotechnical tfngineering ” tfighth tfdition,
CtfNGAGtf Learning, ISBN-13:
978-1-133-10867-2.
Knappett, J. A. and Craig R. F. (2012), “ Craig’s
Soil Mechanics” tfighth tfdition, Spon Press,
ISBN: 978- 0-415-56125-9.
Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi IUST 2

Introduction
Definition of Soil
The term soil according to engineering point of
view is defined as the material, by means of which
and upon which engineers build their structures.
The term soil includes entire thickness of the
earth’s crust (from ground surface to bed rock),
which is accessible and feasible for practical
utilization as foundation support or construction
material. It is composed of loosely bound mineral
particles of various sizes and shapes formed
due to weathering of rocks.
Introduction
Definition of Soil Mechanics
Soil Mechanics is a discipline of Civil

tfngineering involving the study properties of
soil, behavior of soil masses
subjected to various types of forces, and its
application as an engineering material.

Introduction
Definition of Soil Mechanics

According to Terzaghi (1948):
Soil Mechanics is the application of laws of
mechanics and hydraulics to engineering
problems dealing with sediments and other
unconsolidated accumulations of solid
particles, which are produced by the
mechanical and chemical disintegration of
rocks, regardless of whether or
not they contain an admixture of organic
constituents.
Introduction
Why do you need to learn about soils?

Almost all structures are either
constructed of soil, supported on soil,
or both.

Introduction
Why do you need to learn about soils

Various reasons to study the properties of
Soil:
1. Foundation to support Structures
and tfmbankments
2. Construction Material
3. Slopes and Landslides
4. tfarth Retaining Structures
5. Special Problems 7
Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi IUST
Introduction
Who must be concerned with soils?

Civil engineers (structural,
environmental and geotechnical) must
have basic understanding of the soil
properties in order to use them
effectively in construction.

Problems in Geotechnical
tfngineering
9‫ي‬ae‫ا‬
9~:²‫¾ ا‬ş¾(Al-naser
ça¹ç²‫ا‬
Dome)

tfngineering
Shear Failure-Loads have exceeded shear strength
capacity of soil!
Transcosna Grain tflevator, Canada Oct. 18,

1913
tfngineering
Shear Failure-Loads have exceeded shear strength
capacity of soil!

tfngineering
 Shear Failure-Loads have exceeded shear
strength capacity of soil!

tfngineering
 Shear Failure-Loads have exceeded shear
strength capacity of soil!

tfngineering
 Settlemen
t
Leaning Tower,
Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi Pisa IUST 14
tfngineering
 Seepage
Problems

tfngineering
Dam Failure -
Seepage
Teton Dam
Failure
tfngineering
Soil subjected to dynamic
load

Soil Formation
Soil is generally formed by disintegration

and decomposition (weathering) of rocks
through the action of physical (or
mechanical) and chemical agents which
break them into smaller and smaller
particles.
All soils originate, directly or indirectly,
from different rock types.
Soils are formed from the physical
and chemical weathering of
rocks.
Soil Formation
Physical weathering
Involves reduction of size without any change in
the original composition of the parent rock.
The main agents responsible for this process are
exfoliation, erosion, freezing, and thawing.
Physical or mechanical processes taking place on
the earth's surface include the actions of water,
frost, temperature changes, wind and ice. They
cause disintegration and the products are mainly
coarse soils.
Soil Formation
Physical
weathering

Soil Formation
Chemical weathering causes both

reduction in size and chemical alteration of
the original parent rock. The main
agents responsible for chemical weathering
are hydration, carbonation, and oxidation.
Rain water that comes in contact with the
rock
surface reacts to form hydrated oxides,
carbonates and sulphates.
The results of chemical weathering are generally
fine soils with altered mineral grains.
Soil Formation
Chemical
weathering

Soil Types
Soils as they are found in different regions

can be classified into two broad categories:
(1) Residual soils
(2) Transported soils

Residual Soil
Residual Soils
Residual soils are found at the same location where they
have been formed. Generally, the depth of residual
soils varies from 5 to 20 m.
Chemical weathering rate is greater in warm, humid
regions than in cold, dry regions causing a faster
breakdown of rocks. Accumulation of residual soils
takes place as the rate of rock
decomposition exceeds the rate of erosion or
transportation ofthe weathered material. In humid
regions, the presence of surface
vegetation reduces the possibility of soil transportation.
Residual Soil
Residual Soils
As leaching action due to percolating surface
water decreases with depth, there is a
corresponding decrease in the degree of chemical
weathering from the ground surface downwards.
This results in a gradual reduction of residual soil
formation with depth, until unaltered rock is
found.
Residual soils comprise of a wide
range of particle sizes, shapes
and composition.
Transported Soil
Transported Soils
Weathered rock materials can be moved
from their original site to new locations by
one or more of the transportation
agencies to form transported soils.
Transported soils are classified based on
the mode of transportation and
the final deposition environment.

Transported Soil
DtfStfRT SOIL Contains soluble salts.
Originated by Mechanical disintegration &
wind deposit. Porous and coarse. 90% sand
& 5% clay..

Transported Soil
DtfStfRT SOIL Rich in Nitrates &

Phosphates. Poor in Nitrogen.

Transported Soil
Transported Soils
Transported soils are classified based on the
mode of transportation and the final deposition
environment.
(a)Soils that are carried and deposited by rivers
are called alluvial deposits.
(b)Soils that are deposited by flowing water or
surface runoff while entering a lake are called
lacustrine deposits. Alternate layers are formed in
different seasons depending on flow rate.

Transported Soil
Transported Soils
(c)If the deposits are made by rivers in sea water,
they are called marine deposits. Marine deposits
contain both particulate material brought from the
shore as well as organic remnants of marine life
forms.
(d)Melting of a glacier causes the deposition of
all the materials scoured by it leading to formation
of glacial deposits.
(e)Soil particles carried by wind and subsequently
deposited are known as Aeolian deposits.

Transported Soil
Gravity Soils
Gravity can transport materials only
for a short distance.
Gravity soils are termed as talus these
soils are generally loose and porous.

Phases System of Soils
Soil is not a coherent solid material like steel

and concrete, but is a particulate material.
Soils, as they exist in nature, consist of solid
particles (mineral grains, rock fragments) with
water and air in the voids between the
particles.
The water and air contents are readily
changed by changes in ambient conditions
and location.
As the relative proportions of the three phases

vary in any soil deposit, it is useful to
consider a soil model which will represent
these phases distinctly and properly quantify
the amount ofeach phase. A schematic
diagram of the three-phase system is shown in
terms of weight and volume symbols
respectively for soil solids, water, and air.
The weight of air can be neglected.

The compositions of natural soils may include diverse

components which may be classified into three large
groups: Ground Air
1.Solid phase surface
( minerals, Wate
cementations and r
organic materials) Solid
s Voids
2.Liquid phase
(water with
dissolved salts)
3.Gaseous phase
(air or other some 34
gas)
The spaces between the solids ( solid particles) are called voids.
Water is often the predominant liquid and air is the predominant
gas. We will use the terms water and air instead of liquid and
gases. Ground Air
surface
Wate
r
Solid
s Voids

Three Phases System
Soils can be partially saturated (with both air

and water present), or be fully saturated (no
air content) or be perfectly dry (no water
content).
In a saturated soil or a dry soil, the three-
phase system thus reduces to two phases
only, as shown.

Three Phases System
Partially saturated
soil
Air
Voids
(air or
Water
water)
Solid Solid Particles

Particles
Idealization:
Three Phases
Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi IUST Diagram 37
Two - Phases System
Fully saturated
soil
Water
Solid Particles
Idealization:
Two Phases
Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi Diagram
IUST 38
Two - Phases System
Dry
soil
Air
Solid Particles
Idealization:
Two Phases
Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi Diagram
IUST 39
Phase Relations of Soils
The soil model is given dimensional values for the solid,
water and air components.
Volume Symbols Weight Symbols
WW Wa ≈ 0
Va
Air
V
V
VW
Water
WT
VT
WS
V
Solid Particles
S

Three - Phases System
For the purpose of engineering

analysis and design, it is necessary to
express relations between the weights and
the volumes of the three phases.
The various relations can be grouped into:
 Weight relations
 Volume relations
 Inter-relations

Weight Relations
The following are the basic weight
relations:
 water content or moisture content
 specific gravity (Gs)
WW Wa ≈ 0
wt = wc + ww (1-
Air
1)
where,
Water
Wt = total weigℎt o f soil
WT
ssanele Wc = weigℎt o f soil
WS
solids Solid Particles
WWwa==weigℎt
weigℎt
o f owater
f air ≈
0

Weight Relations
Water content
The ratio of the mass of water present to the
mass of solid particles is called the water
content (wc), or sometimes the moisture
content. ww (1-
wc % = wc × 2)
100%
The water content of a soil is found by weighing a
sample of the soil and then placing it in an
oven at 110 ∓ 5 0 C
until the weight of the sample remains constant , that

is, all the absorbed water is driven out.
Weight Relations
Specific Gravity,
The mass of solid particles is usually
expressed in terms of their particle unit
weight or specific gravity (Gs) of the soil
grain solids
The specific gravity of a solid substance is the
ratio of the weight of a given volume of
material to thew weight
y V
of an equal
(1-
volume of
Gc = c c c
water (at 20°C). =
3)
kN
yw = unit=weigℎtyoc fwwater
w = 9.81
n3
yw Vw yw
Weight Relations
Specific Gravity,
The specific gravity of soil solids is often

needed for various calculations in soil
mechanics.
For most inorganic soils, the value of
Gs lies between 2.60 and 2.80.
The presence of organic material
reduces the value of Gs.

Volume Relations
The following are the basic volume

relations:
1. Void ratio (e) Volume

Air
Va
Symbols
V
V
3. Degree of saturation
VW
2. (S)
Porosity (n) Water
VT
4. Air content (a)
V t = Vc + V w + Va (1-
V
Solid Particles
S
4)
V V = Vw + V a

Volume Relations
Void ratio (e)

Void ratio (e) is the ratio ofthe volume of
voids (Vv) to the volume of soil solids (Vs),
and is expressed as a decimal.
e= (1-
V Vv 5)
The void ratio of realc coarse grained soils
vary between 0.3 and 1. Clay soils can have
void ratio greater than one.
Volume Relations
Porosity (n)
Porosity (n) is the ratio of the

volume of voids to the total volume of soil
(Vt ), and is expressed as a percentage.
Vv (1-
n 100% = Vt × 100%
6)
The range of porosity is 0 %< n <
100%

Volume Relations
Void ratio (e) & Porosity (n)

Void ratio and porosity are inter-related to
each other as follows:
Vv Vv Vv
e= = = = (1-
Vc n 1−n
Vt − Vv Vt 1 −
Vt 7)
Vv
Vv Vv e
n= = = (1-
VS + V v 1+e
VS 1 + V 8)
S
Vv

Volume Relations
Degree of saturation (S)

The volume of water (Vw) in a soil can
vary between zero (i.e. a dry soil) and the
volume of voids. This can be expressed as
the degree of saturation (S) in percentage.
Degree of saturation is the ratio of the
volume of water to the volume of voids.
Vw
S 100% = × (1-
100%
Vv 9)
Volume Relations
Degree of saturation (S)

The degree of saturation tell us what
percentage of the volume of voids
contains water .
S= VS 1 ww yc wc × Gc (1-
× = × × =
Vw Vv VS e y w wc 10)
e
For fully saturated soil, VV = VW, S =1 or
100% For a dry soil, S = 0 and
For partially saturated soil 1<S<0

Volume Relations
Air content (a)

The air content, a, is the ratio of air
volume to total volume .
Va
a 100% = × (1-11)
100%
Vt
a 100% = n 1 − S (1-
The air- voids, Va , is that part of 12)
the
voids space not occupied by water
For a perfectly dry soil :a =
n For a saturated soil : a =
0
Weight –volume relationship
Unit weight ( y )
Density is a measure of the quantity
of mass in a unit volume of material.
Unit weight is a measure of the weight of
a unit volume of material.
Both can be used interchangeably. The
units of density are ton/m³, kg/m³ or
g/cm³.
The unit of unit weight is kN/m³.

Unit weight ( y )
The unit weight of a soil is the ratio of the
weight of soil to the total volume.
wt
y= (1-13)
Vt
In natural soils the magnitude of the
total unit weight will depend on how much
water happens to be in the voids as will as the
unit weight of the mineral
grains themselves.
Dry unit weight ( yd)

The dry unit weight of a soil is the ratio of
the weight of
solidsyto the total volume. (1-
d =
Vt
14)
The dry wunit
weight can also be
c
determined
yd = as
wc = yc yw Gc (1-
Vc 1 + e 1+e = 1+
e
15)
wt ww
wc 1 +w
y= = c
= y d 1 + wc (1-
Vt Vt
16) 55
Saturated unit weight (ycat)

For a saturated soil, the unit weight
becomes
yca t = wt (1-
Vt
17)
ww
wc 1+w yc 1 + Gec yw Gc 1 + Gec
= =
y cat = c Vc 1 + e 1+e 1+e
yca t = yw Gc + e
1+e (1-
18)
Submerged unit weight ( y cub )

The submerged unit weight of the
soil is given as
y cub = yu = y c a t − yw (1-
y cat = y cub + yw
19)
S=0 Ground
yd Surface
S =( 0 to y
1)
G.W.T
S=1 yca t
ycub

Use
Summary
In summary, for the easy solution of phase

problem, you don’t have to memorize lots of
complicated formulas. Most of them can
easily be derived from the phase diagram.
Just remember the following simple rules:
1. Remember the basic definitions of
properties
2. Draw a phase diagram
3. Assume either VS = 1 or VT = 1.

Worked tfxamples
tfxample 1
An undisturbed sample of saturated clay has
been found to have a moisture content of
24 %. The specific gravity of the solid
particles was determined as 2.7. By
deriving any relationships needed using the
basic definitions and a phase diagram for
this soil, determine the void ratio and the
bulk unit weight.

Worked tfxamples
Solution of example
1 Volum Weight
e
Water e e γw
Solid Vs =1 GS γw
Vt =1+e (GS +e) γw

Worked tfxamples
Solution of example
1
w c × Gc
S=1= e
e = 0.24 * 2.7 = 0.648
yca t = yw Gc + e
1+e
γ = (2.7 + 0.648) 9.81/(1+0.648)
γ =19.93 kN/m3

Use
Worked tfxamples
tfxample 2
Prove the following
relationships:
a yd = 1 − n yw Gc
)
b) y c a t = Gc − n Gc − 1 yw
n yw
c w c(cat) = y c a t − n yw
)
d Gc = y cat
yw − wc y c a t − yw
)
Use
Worked tfxamples
tfxample 3
A soil has void ratio = 0.72, moisture content =
12% and Gs= 2.72. Determine its
(a) Dry unit weight
(b) Moist unit weight, and the
(c)Amount of water to be added per m3 to make
the soil saturated.

Worked tfxamples
tfxample 4
The dry unit weight of a sand with

porosity of 0.387 is 15.6 k N / n 3
Find the void ratio ofthe soil and the
specific gravity of the soil solids

Worked tfxamples
tfxample 5
A cubic meter of soil in its natural state
weighs
17.75 kN; after being dried it weighs
15.08 kN. The specific
gravity of the solids is
2.70.
(a)Determine the water content, void ratio,
porosity and degree of saturation for the
soil as it existed in its natural state.
(b)What would be the bulk unit weight and
water content if the soil
were fully 66
saturated at the same void ratio as in its
natural state ?
Worked tfxamples
tfxample 6
For a given soil , the following are given : GS =
2.67; wet unit weight ; γ = 16.8 kN/m³ moisture
content
WC = 10.8 % . Determine :
1. Dry unit weight
2. Void ratio
3. Porosity
4. Degree of saturation

Worked tfxamples
tfxample 7
For a soil ; given γd = 16.8 kN/m3 ; e =
0.51, determine:
1. Specific gravity
2. Saturated unit weight
3. Unit weight when the degree of
saturation is 45%.
4. Saturated water content
5. Porosity.

Worked tfxamples
tfxample 8
Determine the weight of water (in kN) that must

be added to a cubic meter of soil to attain a
95 % degree of saturation, if the dry unit weight
is 17.5 kN/m³, the moisture content is 4 % and
the specific gravity is 2.65.

Worked tfxamples
tfxample 9
A project engineer receives a laboratory report
with tests performed on marine marl calcareous
silt). The engineer suspects that one of the
measurements is in error. Are the engineer’s
suspicions correct? If so, which one of these
values is wrong, and what should be its correct
value? ( Gs = 2.65 )
Given: γ = 18.6 kN/m^3 , wc = 40.08
%, e = 1.18 , and S = 90 %
Worked tfxamples
tfxample 10
The bulk unit weight of the soil has been
measured as 19.17 kN/m³, the moisture
content as 25.3% and the Gs of the solid
particles as
2.70. Calculate:
a) the degree of saturation, S.
b) the porosity, and
c) air content.
Worked tfxamples
tfxample 11
For a saturated soil; given

γd = 15.3 kN/m^3 ; and WC = 27 %;
Determine:
1. Saturation unit weight
2. Void ratio
3. Specific gravity
4. Wet unit eight when the degree of
saturation is 50 %.
Worked tfxamples
tfxample 12
A soil sample has a unit weight of 16.62
kN/m³ and a saturation of 50%. When its
saturation is increased to 75%, its unit
weight raises to
17.72 kN/m³
Determine the voids ratio e and the
specific gravity Gs of this soil.

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INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY

FOR SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

CIVIL ENGINEERING AND

Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi IUST 2

Definition of Soil Mechanics

Soil Mechanics is a discipline of Civil

Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi IUST 4

Definition of Soil Mechanics

Why do you need to learn about soils?

Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi IUST 6

Why do you need to learn about soils

Who must be concerned with soils?

Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi IUST 8

Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi IUST 9

Transcosna Grain tflevator, Canada Oct. 18,

Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi IUST 11

Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi IUST 12

Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi IUST 13

Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi IUST 15

Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi IUST 17

Soil is generally formed by disintegration

Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi IUST 20

Chemical weathering causes both

Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi IUST 22

Soils as they are found in different regions

(1) Residual soils

(2) Transported soils

Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi IUST 23

Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi IUST 26

Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi IUST 27

DtfStfRT SOIL Rich in Nitrates &

Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi IUST 28

Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi IUST 29

Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi IUST 30

Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi IUST 31

Soil is not a coherent solid material like steel

As the relative proportions of the three phases

Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi IUST 33

The compositions of natural soils may include diverse

Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi IUST 35

Soils can be partially saturated (with both air

Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi IUST 36

Solid Solid Particles

Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi IUST 40

For the purpose of engineering

Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi IUST 41

Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi IUST 42

until the weight of the sample remains constant , that

The specific gravity of soil solids is often

Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi IUST 45

The following are the basic volume

1. Void ratio (e) Volume

Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi IUST 46

Void ratio (e)

Porosity (n) is the ratio of the

Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi IUST 48

Void ratio (e) & Porosity (n)

Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi IUST 49

Degree of saturation (S)

Degree of saturation (S)

Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi IUST 51

Air content (a)