Material Removal Manufacturing

Processes
MACH71685
Dr. Liviu Radulescu, P.Eng.
 11 Nontraditional processes
Material removal manufacturing processes:
• Machining operations: These are cutting operations using
cutting tools that are harder than the metal of the product. They
include turning, drilling, milling, shaping, planing, broaching and
sawing.
• Abrasive machining: In these methods material is removed by
abrasive particles that normally form a bonded wheel. Grinding,
honing and lapping are included in this category.
• Nontraditional processes: These methods use lasers, electron
beams, chemical erosion, electric discharge and electrochemical
energy instead of traditional cutting and grinding tools.

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 11 Nontraditional processes
• Nontraditional machining processes, also called
advanced manufacturing processes, are
employed where traditional machining processes
are not feasible, satisfactory or economical due
to special reasons as outlined below:
– When dealing with very hard, fragile materials,
difficult to clamp for traditional machining
– When the work piece is too flexible or slender
– When the shape of the part is too complex

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 11 Nontraditional processes
• Nontraditional machining methods can be
defined as those methods that satisfy at least
one of the following conditions:
– are effective in processing materials with special
properties (e.g.: high hardness, brittleness, high
toughness, etc.)
– enable the manufacturing, with high precision, of
surfaces that are special in shape, size, and finish
– are applied in special environments, ionized or not, at
high pressure or in vacuum.
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 11 Nontraditional processes
• Most of these methods are based on the removal of
material in the micron domain (microchips, 0.1 – 0.001 mm
in size) as a result of erosion phenomena.
• An erosive agent is used, that can be a complex
physicochemical system capable of releasing energy directly
to the processed surface, or to the processing medium.
• The transferred energy can be electrical, electrochemical,
electromagnetic, chemical, thermal, or mechanical and
contributes to the destruction of the integrity of the
workpiece until its surface reaches the desired shape and
quality.

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 11 Nontraditional processes
• Other nontraditional machining methods
(NMM) are applied to drilling, thread cutting,
cutting or welding of workpieces.
• There are dozens of NMM. Only those that are
more important commercially will be briefly
discussed.

• NMM can be classified as follows:

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 11 Nontraditional processes
• Mechanical energy processes
– Ultrasonic machining
– Processes using water and abrasive jets
• Electrochemical machining processes
– Electrochemical machining
– Electrochemical deburring and grinding
• Thermal energy processes
– Electric discharge processes
– Electron beam machining
– Laser beam machining
– Arc-cutting processes
– Oxy-fuel cutting processes
• Chemical machining processes

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 11.1 Ultrasonic machining
• Ultrasonic machining (USM) is a process by which
abrasives contained in a slurry are driven at high velocity
against the workpiece by a tool vibrating at ultrasonic
frequencies (around 20 kHz) and low amplitude (around
0.075 mm).
• The tool oscillates in a direction perpendicular to the
work surface.

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 11.2 Water jet cutting
• Water jet cutting (WJC) is a process by which a
wide variety of materials can be cut using a
very high-pressure jet of water, or a mixture of
water and an abrasive substance (in this case
the process is called abrasive water jet cutting,
AWJC).
• Soft materials are cut with water only, while
hard materials require a stream of water mixed
with fine grains of abrasive.
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 11.2 Water jet cutting
Products created using WJC technology:

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 11.3 Electrochemical machining
• Electrochemical machining (ECM) removes
metal from an electrically conductive
workpiece by anodic dissolution.
– The shape of the workpiece (+) is created by a
formed electrode tool (-)
– The work and the tool are separated by a rapidly
flowing electrolyte
– ECM is basically a reverse of electroplating.

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11.4 Electric discharge machining
• Electric discharge machining (EDM) utilises
thermoelectric process to erode undesired
material from the workpiece by a series of
discrete electrical sparks between the
workpiece and the electrode.
– A dielectric fluid separates the tool and the
workpiece.
– Discharges are generated by a pulsating DC power
supply.

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11.4 Electric discharge machining
• Parts with complex internal geometry made
by EDM process:

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 11.5 Electron beam machining
• Electron beam machining (EBM) uses a
focused beam of high-velocity electrons to
remove material.
– EBM technology can also be used for heat treating
and welding.
• In this process, a stream of electrons strikes
the workpiece with high velocity. Their kinetic
energy is transformed into thermal energy
which melts and vaporizes the material.
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 11.6 Laser beam machining
• Laser beam machining (LBM) is a thermal material-
removal process that utilizes a high-energy, coherent
light beam to melt and vaporize particles on the
surface of metallic and non-metallic workpieces.
– A laser (light amplification by stimulated emission of
radiation) is an optical transducer that converts electrical
energy into a highly coherent light beam.
• Lasers can be used to cut, drill, weld and mark. LBM
is particularly suitable for making accurately placed
holes.
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 11.7 Arc-cutting processes
• Arc-cutting processes use the heat generated
by an arc between an electrode and a metallic
workpiece (usually a flat plate) to melt a kerf
that separates the part. One of the arc cutting
processes is the plasma arc cutting.

• Plasma = superheated, electrically ionized gas.

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 11.8 Oxy-fuel cutting processes
• Oxy-fuel cutting use a combination of fuel gases (acetylene,
natural gas, propane, etc.) and oxygen to cut metals.
• Oxy-fuel cutting begins by using a torch to heat a metal to its
kindling temperature. This is the lowest temperature at which
the metal in question will spontaneously ignite. At this point, a
stream of oxygen is trained onto the metal, in turn burning it
into a metal oxide. This new metal oxide then flows out and
away from the intact material being utilized. Any leftover slag
can be wiped or tapped away. It’s actually the heat produced by
the metal oxide and its contact with the rest of the material
which actively continues the cutting process. The torch itself
only heats the metal to begin the process.

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 11.9 Chemical machining
• Chemical machining (CHM) is a
nonconventional process in which material
removal occurs by controlled dissolution of
workpiece material by a strong acidic or
alkaline chemical reagent (etchant).

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12. Measurement and gauging
12.1 Coordinate measuring machines
12.2 Surface quality

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 12.1 Coordinate measuring machines
• A Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM) is a 3-
dimensional measuring device that uses a
(contact) probe to detect the surface of the object.
• Basically, they consist of a platform on which the
workpiece being measured is placed and moved
linearly or rotated. A probe attached to a head
capable of lateral and vertical movements records
all measurements. Coordinate measuring
machines are also called measuring machines.

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 12.1 Coordinate measuring machines

• The simplest approach is to place the CMM at

the end of the production line or in an
inspection area. With this approach, the CMM
is used to inspect the first part of a production
run to verify the machine setup. Once the
setup is verified, it then measures parts on a
random basis. For many applications, this
permits the best approach to inspection.

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 12.1 Coordinate measuring machines
• New technologies as non contact optical and laser scanning
applied to the CMM expand their capabilities to handle higher
accuracy and complexity geometry
• Can be integrated with CNC machines through CAM
technologies to correct manufacturing based on inspection in
real time – new technology.
• Offered in many design configurations, have some common
features:
– High precision and rigidity positioning systems using non friction linear
bearings.
– Virtually 100% stable natural rock machine bases
– Usually require thermally stabilized environments

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 12.1 Coordinate measuring machines
Particularly suited for following conditions:
• Short production runs
• Parts with multiple features (dimensional and form) and higher cost of manufacturing
having critical metrological characteristics.
• Production interruption required by conditional part inspection production
• When scrap is very costly even in small percentages
• Large variations of manufactured components geometry

Limitations
• Not an universal measurement device. Many components can not be measured by a
contact probe CMM ( non rigid components, parts having extreme dimensional values)
• Not suitable for very short runs and custom component production in large quantities
• In certain situations are time consuming as a program must be created for each
different part, requiring an operator full time.

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 12.1.1 Machine configurations
• A basic coordinate measuring machine consists
of four elements:
1. the machine structure (basically an x-y-z positioning
device),
2. the probing system used to collect raw data on the
part and provide input to the control system,
3. machine control and computer hardware,
4. the software for three-dimensional geometry
analysis. The measuring envelope is defined by the
x, y, and z travel of the machine.
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12.1.1 Machine configurations

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 12.1.1 Machine configurations
• The machine incorporates the basic concept of
three coordinate axes so that precise
movement in x, y, and z directions is possible.
Each axis is fitted with a linear measurement
transducer. The transducers sense the
direction of movement and gives digital
display.

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 12.1.1 Machine configurations
• There may be five types of arrangement :
– cantilever
– bridge
– column
– gantry
– horizontal arm

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 12.1.1 Machine configurations
• The cantilever type
– It combines easy access and
relatively small floor space
requirements
– It is typically limited to small
and medium sized machines.
– Parts larger than the machine
(a) fixed table; (b) moving table
table can be inserted into the
open side without inhibiting
full machine travel.
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 12.1.1 Machine configurations
• The cantilever type
– The probe is attached to the first
component, which moves vertically (z
direction) relative to the second.
– The second component moves horizontally
(y direction) relative to the third.
– The third component is supported at one
end only, cantilever fashion, and moves
horizontally (x direction) relative to the
machine base.
(a) fixed table; (b) moving table
– The workpiece is supported on the
worktable.
– A typical machine of this configuration is
version (a)

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 12.1.1 Machine configurations
• The bridge type
– by far the most popular CMM
construction
– It is claimed that the bridge
construction provides better
accuracy, although it may be
offset by difficulty in making
two members track in perfect
alignment.

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 12.1.1 Machine configurations
• The bridge type
– The probe is attached to the first component, which
moves vertically (z direction) relative to the second.
– The second component moves horizontally (y
direction) relative to the third.
– The third component is supported on two legs that
reach down to opposite sides of the machine base
and moves horizontally (x direction) relative to the
base.
– The workpiece is supported on the base.
– A typical machine of this configuration is shown in
figure (a). This type of configuration is often referred
to as a moving-bridge or a traveling-bridge CMM.

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 12.1.1 Machine configurations
• The bridge type
– One modification of the moving-
bridge configuration has each end
of the bridge structure fixed to the
machine base (see figure (b)).
– The workpiece is mounted on a
separate table that moves
horizontally (x direction) relative to
the base. The configuration is
referred to as a fixed-bridge CMM.

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 12.1.1 Machine configurations
• The bridge type
– Another modification of the bridge
configuration has two bridge-shaped
components (see figure (c)).
– One of these bridges is fixed at each
end to the machine base.
– The other bridge, which is an inverted L-
shape, moves horizontally (x direction)
on guideways in the fixed bridge and
machine base. The configuration is
referred to as an L-shaped bridge.

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 12.1.1 Machine configurations
• The bridge type
– A third modification of moving-
bridge configuration is the central-
bridge drive (see figure (d)). The
drive forces are applied to the
center of mass of the bridge
assembly. This eliminates pitching
and yawing moments on the bridge
assembly, allowing higher
acceleration and deceleration
rates.
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 12.1.1 Machine configurations
• The column type
– commonly referred to as a
universal measuring machine
rather than a CMM.
– usually considered gage room
instruments rather than
production floor machines.
– differs from the cantilever type
with respect to x and y-axes
movements.
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 12.1.1 Machine configurations
• The gantry type
– initially introduced in the early
1960s to inspect large parts such as
airplane fuselages, automobile
bodies, ship propellers, and diesel
engine blocks. The open design
permits the operator to remain
close to the part being inspected
while minimizing the inertia of the
moving machine parts and
maintaining structural stiffness.
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 12.1.1 Machine configurations
• The gantry type

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 12.1.1 Machine configurations
• The horizontal arm type
– employs three movable components
moving along mutually perpendicular
guideways.
– the probe is attached to the horizontal
arm, which is attached at one end only to a
carriage that moves in a vertical (Z)
direction on the column. The arm support
and table move horizontally (X and Y
directions) relative to the machine base.
– In some other constructions, the horizontal
arm moves and the table is fixed.

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 12.1.2 Probes
Three types of probes are commonly used:
1) hard
2) electronic
3) noncontact
• A probe is selected according to the
dimensional and geometrical requirements of
the inspection process.

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 12.1.2 Probes
1) Hard probes consist of a shaft and a probe tip
mounted in various ways to the probe arm.
• The shape of the probe determines its application:
– conical probes are used for locating holes;
– ball probes for establishing surface locations;
– cylindrical probes for checking slots and holes in sheet
metal parts;
– edge-finder probes are used for part alignment and
measurement of flat surfaces or edges of parts.

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 12.1.2 Probes
• To use a hard probe, the CMM operator
manually brings the probe into contact with
the work piece, allows the machine to settle
and manually signals the CMM to record the
probe's position.
• Hard probes can only be used in small,
manually operated CMMs when inspecting
simple parts of a short production run.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OrZBQukmeJU
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 12.1.2 Probes
2) Electronic probes are commonly classified
into one of three categories:
• switching (the most popular)
• proportional
• nulling probes.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DxdFiIDrFBc
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rJS9GKw7pWk

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 12.1.2 Probes
• Switching probe – also called a touch probe,
is an omnidirectional triggering device
consisting of a probe body and a stylus;
multiple stylus arrangements are also
available. When the stylus is brought into
contact with the workpiece, a signal is sent to
the computer interface, indicating the
instantaneous three-dimensional location of
the stylus.
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 12.1.2 Probes
• Probing system can have
the following
components:
– Probe head
– Probe extension
– Stylus adapter
– Stylus

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 12.1.2 Probes
• Proportional probe – designed for automatic
scanning of profiles contained in section
planes passing through the probe axis. The
probe consists of a transducer and a motor-
powered, servo-controlled axis and carries on
its tip a servo-assisted feeler that is kept in
contact with the surface to be inspected.

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 12.1.2 Probes
• Nulling probes – basically the same as the
proportional probe with two major differences:
– first, it is more accurate than the proportional probe
because the control system indicates the three-
dimensional location of the stylus when the probe is
at null condition (machine axis at rest).
– second, the probe must leave the surface to proceed
to the next inspection location whereas the
proportional probe does not.

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 12.1.2 Probes
3) Noncontact probes are used when fast, accurate
measurements are required with no physical contact with
the part. Several types of noncontact probes are used:
– Optical probes are used when inspecting drawings, printed
circuit boards, and small, fragile workpieces.
– Probes containing a laser light source that projects a small
diameter spot on the part surface. A digital solid-state sensor
detects the position of this spot and computes part surface
location by optical triangulation. Because of the intrinsic nature
of these probes, part inspection is generally limited to two
dimensions.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fHpJxy_qD88
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 12.1.2 Probes
• Coordinate measuring machine (CMM) accuracy is
dependent upon the temperature of the environment in
which it operates. Changes in temperature cause the
scales, machine structure and artifacts being measured
to expand, contract, and, in some cases, distort in a non-
linear manner.
• Though often compensated for in a variety of ways,
these thermally induced changes can lead to significant
measurement uncertainty, particularly in the context of
measurement on the shop floor, where temperature can
be difficult to control.
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 13 Surface quality
• Trend in product design:
machinery that can run faster,
last longer, and operate more
precisely than ever.
• As industry tries harder to
approach perfection, interest
has focused more closely on
the microfinishing processes.

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 13 Surface quality
• Surface finish control
– Starts in the drafting room
• Two main reasons for surface control:
1) To reduce friction
• When a film of lubricant must be maintained between two moving
parts, the surface irregularities must be small enough so they will not
penetrate the oil film under the most severe operating conditions.
2) To control wear
• A smooth surface eliminates the sharp irregularities which are the
greatest potential source of fatigue cracks.
• The surface finish must be a compromise between sufficient roughness
for proper wear-in and sufficient smoothness for expected service life.

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 13 Surface quality
Surface texture
• Represents the cumulated result of a series of parameters affecting
surface’s micro-geometry:
1. Flaws or defects
Volumes of material removed from surface, inclusions, mechanical deformations
2. Lay (directionality)
General orientation of surface marks created by a manufacturing process
3. Waviness - deviation from a theoretical flat surface
Produced by machine tool inaccuracies, part deflections, periodic mechanical or
thermal variations.
4. Roughness - smaller scale irregularities following the waviness profile
Produced by high frequency vibrations of tool or part itself

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 13 Surface quality
• There are three general methods by which the
surface texture and the surface geometry may
be explored and evaluated:
– electronic,
– optical,
– visual or tactual

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 13 Surface quality
1. Electronic
• There are two types of electronic instruments which measure actual
surface texture:
– averaging (or velocity type) and
– profiling (or displacement type).
• Averaging or tracer-type instruments employ a stylus that is drawn
across the surface to be measured. The vertical motion of the tracer is
amplified electrically and is impressed on a recorder to draw the
profile of the surface or is fed into an averaging meter to give a
number representing the roughness value of the surface.
• Profiling equipment is used principally in laboratories for research and
development applications. Considerable skill is required to operate the
equipment and analyze and interpret the data.

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 13 Surface quality
2. Optical
• Optical or area systems use optical methods for surface
evaluation. Equipment ranges from exploration of the surface
with simple microscopes or three-dimensional microtopography
to highly sophisticated techniques such as interferometry.
• Area systems inspect all the surface, not simply one line across
it. The surface texture in this process is clearly distinguished
from the surface geometry. Because there is no stylus, the
surface is not mechanically contacted, and thus there can be no
damage to the workpiece surface. Another important advantage
of optical inspection methods is that the biasing effect of the
stylus radius is eliminated.

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 13 Surface quality
• 3. Visual or tactual
• The visual or tactual is the simplest and most
straightforward method of surface measurement. It is also
the least accurate. There are commercial sets of master
precision reference specimens with replicated surfaces.
The scales, used with or without a magnifier, are placed
adjacent to the workpiece under examination and the
surfaces are compared visibly or tactually by drawing the
tip of the fingernail across each at right angles to the tool
marks. The fingernail touch or "feel" will be the same
when both finishes are identical.
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13 Surface quality
Portable instruments:
• Battery operated
• Inductive, skidded pick-up
• Integral or separate drive
• LCD display
• Printer and output
available

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13 Surface quality
PC-based instruments
• Analog probe
• Digital conversion
• Windows® OS
• Surface analysis
software

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13 Surface quality
Stylus type instrument - schematic

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 13 Surface quality
Contact methods – generally use a stylus of various profiles
that contacts the actual surface on a specified length and
has its vertical motion recorded and electronically processed
• Skidded
– Contact probe uses the actual part surface as reference resting
with a skid on the surface profile peaks while stylus measures
the valleys depth
• Skid-less
– Stylus measures directly peaks and valleys and compares
readings with a digital reference surface.

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 13 Surface quality
• Best practices:
– Part held in rigid mount
– Drive stable and set up free from ambient
vibration
– Surface to be measured clean
– Measurement 90° to “lay” unless otherwise
specified

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 13 Surface quality
• Best practices:

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 13 Surface quality
• Best practices:

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