Material Removal Manufacturing Processes: MACH71685 Dr. Liviu Radulescu, P.Eng

Material Removal Manufacturing
Processes
MACH71685
Dr. Liviu Radulescu, P.Eng.
1. Introduction to manufacturing
1.1 Manufacturing defined
1.2 Materials in manufacturing
1.3 Manufacturing processes
1.4 Material removal processes
2
• What is manufacturing?
• Etymology: manufacture (“something made by
hand”) – from Medieval Latin manufactura
(Latin manu "hand“ + factura "a working“)
• Manufacturing (technologically) = application of
physical and chemical processes to alter the
geometry, properties and/or appearance of a
given starting material to make parts or
products.
3
• Industrial revolution: metallurgical phase
(1830s to 1900s) – hand tools converted to
machine tools (power to drive the tools
became available)
– Boring machine
– Lathe
– Milling machine, etc.
4
• Metals
– ferrous (based on iron)
– nonferrous
• Ceramics
– traditional: clay, silica, alumina, silicon carbide
– modern: alumina, carbides, nitrides
• Polymers
– thermoplastic
– thermosetting
• Composites (phases; matrix)
5
• In most engineering applications we deal with
alloys, rather than pure metals.
• Steel is a general term used to describe an
alloy of iron with small amounts of carbon. The
content in carbon is limited to 2.06% in weight.
If the carbon content is higher, the alloy is
known as cast iron (brittle). The content of
carbon in cast iron is limited to 6.67% in
weight.
6
• Carbon steel, also called plain carbon steel, is a
malleable steel containing small amounts of
manganese, and other elements that are
inherently present (trace amounts of
chromium, cobalt, columbium [niobium],
molybdenum, nickel, titanium, tungsten).
• It is possible to produce a wide range of
properties of steel by varying the composition
slightly, or by varying its processing.
7
• High speed steel (HSS) is a multi-component
alloy containing, besides Fe and C, other
chemical elements like chromium, tungsten,
molybdenum, vanadium, or cobalt, in excess
of 7%, while C represents 0.60 - 1%. This alloy
is also subjected to appropriate high-
temperature heat treatment to become true
HSS.
8
• In chemistry, a carbide is a compound
composed of carbon and a less
electronegative element.
• In machining, carbide (or more specifically
tungsten carbide and titanium carbide) is a
very common material on many cutting tools
because it stays sharper longer than most
other materials.
9
Terms used to describe mechanical properties of metals: hardness, brittleness, malleability, ductility, elasticity,
toughness.
• Hardness - the ability of a metal to resist abrasion, penetration, cutting action, or permanent distortion.
Hardness may be increased by working the metal and, in the case of steel and certain titanium and aluminum
alloys, by heat treatment and cold-working.
• Brittleness - the property of breaking without much permanent deformation. In other words, a brittle metal is
apt to break or crack without change of shape. Cast iron, cast aluminum, and very hard steel are brittle metals.
• Malleability – the property of a metal related to its ability to be hammered, rolled, or pressed into various
shapes (deformation by compression) without cracking or breaking. Aluminum, copper, tin, lead, steel are
examples of malleable metals.
• Ductility - the property of a metal that permits it to be permanently drawn into thin wire on application of the
load (deformation in tension) without breaking. This property is essential for metals used in making wire and
tubing. Aluminum alloys, mild steel, gold, silver, copper, are examples of ductile materials.
• Elasticity - is that property that enables a metal to return to its original shape when the force that causes the
change of shape is removed. Each metal has a point known as the elastic limit, beyond which it cannot be
loaded without causing permanent distortion. NOTE: Stress is the internal resistance of any metal to distortion.
• Toughness – the property of a metal related to its capacity to withstand tearing , shearing , stretching or other
deformations without breaking.
10
1.3 Manufacturing Processes
11
1.4 Material removal processes
12
2. Standardization and measurement
2.1 Standardization
2.2 Standards of length, mass and time
2.3 Tolerances and measurement errors
2.4 Instruments
13
2.1 Standardization
• The need for standardization
– Standards: rules which seek to regulate a specific
domain
– Why?
• Standards make sure that products work together safely
and as intended.
• Components can be built at any manufacturing facility
with same result.
• Avoid wasted time of wheel reinvention – use standard
design approaches and procedures for routine situations.
14
2.1 Standardization
– Standardized components
• Standardized discrete sizes, values
• Predictable performance and ratings
• Parts will fit and work together, regardless of
manufacturer
• Allows modular design (interchangeability)
15
2.1 Standardization
– Standardized procedures
• Measuring
• Manufacturing
• Assembling
• Testing
16
2.1 Standardization
– The issue of standards is an act of regulatory
bodies:
• CSA (Canadian Standards Association) – a nonprofit
membership-based association developing standards
that address real needs, such as enhancing public
safety and health.
• ANSI (American National Standards Institute) - A
nonprofit organization with the primary goal to
enhance the global competitiveness of U.S. business
and the American quality of life.
17
2.1 Standardization
• ASME (American Society of Mechanical Engineers) – a
nonprofit engineering society which sets many
industrial and manufacturing standards.
• ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials, now
ASTM International) – provides standards, technical
information, and contribute to the reliability of
materials, products, systems and services.
• NIST (National Institute of Standards and Technology) –
an agency of the U.S. Dept. of Commerce's Technology
Administration that works with industry to develop and
apply technology, measurements, and standards.
18
2.1 Standardization
• SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers – writes
aerospace and automotive engineering standards.
Subjects include metallic materials, fasteners, fittings,
etc.
• ISO (International Organization for Standardization)
Founders of ISO, London 1946
19
• Systems of measurement
– metric system → International System of Units (SI)
• Based on meter and kilogram (1799)
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hCxDEB2t5Hc&feature=related
• coherent
– imperial system → (US customary units)

• Based on nature and everyday activities (British units,
1215)
• conversion factors required
20
• Units:
– Length
• SI: the base unit of length is metre, m. The metre is the
length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a
time interval of 1/299,792,458 of a second. In practice,
lengths are measured by counting the wavelengths of
light generated by a few approved light sources.
– Common submultiples of metre: centimetre (cm), millimetre
(mm), micrometre (μm), nanometre (nm)
• US customary: inch, foot, (yard and mile)
21
• Units:
– Mass
• SI: kilogram (kg); submultiples: gram, milligram
• US customary: ounce, pound and ton
– Time
• SI and US customary: second (s); (minute)
22
• End standard – a standard of length in the form of a
metal bar or block whose end faces are the standard
distance apart. End standards are practical length
standards for the industry (gauge blocks).
Each block has two faces

flat, level and parallel to
within approximately
±0.00003 mm
Source: http://www.npl.co.uk/science-+-technology/dimensional/dimensional-measurements/end-standards
23
• Engineering tolerances – the permissible limits of
variation in a physical dimension, a measured value or
physical property of a material, manufactured object
• Measurement errors
– Accuracy
– Precision
• As far as measurements, the gauges or your CMM are
typically required to be 10 more accurate than the
total allowed variation given by the tolerances (“the
rule of 10”).
24
Lab notes:
• Objective: To measure components of a
robotic arm (reversed engineering), create
appropriately dimensioned sketches and use
them to manufacture the robotic arm parts.
25
Lab notes:
• Inch preferred values* will generally increment in
multiples of 1/16 in, 1/8 in and ¼ in, up to a few
inches; multiples of ¼ in are for the larger sizes.
• Preferred metric values will increment by 1mm
up to 6mm; by 2mm increments up to 50mm
(approximately) with the 15, 25, 35 and 45 values
included.
*the robotic arm parts are in inches
26
Lab notes:
• When designing or just measuring the robotic
arm components, not all features require tight
tolerances. When you measure the robotic
arm, identify the important values by the
number of decimal places used. There is no
need to try and determine the appropriate
tolerance value.
27
Lab notes:
• Metric units may be specified without any
decimal point. Inch units must use a minimum of
2 decimal places.
• For inch values:
– Use 2 decimal places for unimportant features
– Use 3 decimal places to indicate relative importance
– Use 4 decimal places to indicate extreme importance
28
2.4 Instruments
• Metrology – the science of measurement;
• Manufacturing metrology deals with the
measurement of workpiece characteristics
including: length, diameter, thickness, etc.
• The most frequently used technologies for
measuring are
– Mechanical
– Electronic
29
2.4 Instruments
• In general, the mechanical and electronic types of
measuring instruments have sensing devices or probes that
come in contact with the workpiece – contact instruments.
• Performance criteria to consider for the measuring
instruments:
1) Accuracy
2) Linearity
3) Repeatability
4) Resolution
5) Sensitivity
6) Stability (or drift)
30
2.4 Instruments
1) Accuracy – the ability to measure the true magnitude of a dimension
2) Linearity – the accuracy of the measurements of an instrument
throughout its operating range
3) Repeatability – the ability of the instrument to show the same results
on repeated applications under unchanged conditions (also known as
“precision”)
4) Resolution – the smallest increment of measurement that can be
read on an instrument
5) Sensitivity – the smallest increment of difference in dimension that
can be detected by an instrument
6) Stability (or drift) – the ability of an instrument to maintain its
calibration over a period of time.
31
2.4 Instruments
Basic linear measuring instruments
• Most of them are direct-reading instruments –
the instrument contains a graduated scale from
which the size of the dimension being measured
can be determined.
• Typical linear measuring instruments
– Steel rule
– Vernier caliper
– Micrometer caliper
32
2.4 Instruments
33
2.4.1 Steel rule
• The steel rule is the basic measuring tool.
• Made of hardened and tempered steel.
• Steel rules come in many sizes and formats.
– Most rules are 6 in or 12 in.
– They can be rigid or flexible.
– Steel rules are available up to 144 in (12 feet) long.
34
2.4.1 Steel rule
Graduations
• There are many options for graduations. Some
of the more common styles are shown in the
following photos:
3R: 32nds, 64ths, 10ths, 50ths of

an inch
Source: http://littlemachineshop.com/Instructions/SteelRules.pdf
35
2.4.1 Steel rule
•
• 4R: 8ths, 16ths, 32nds, 64ths
31 (Inch/Metric):
0.5mm & 32nds, mm & 64ths
36
2.4.1 Steel rule
Measuring
• It is recommended to measure between two
graduation lines (rather than from the end of
the rule – for increased accuracy).
37
2.4.1 Steel rule
Measuring
• Hold the rule such that the graduations on the
rule are adjacent to the part being measured.
– When the rule is laid flat on the part, the accuracy
is affected by parallax.
Good technique Bad technique
38
2.4.1 Steel rule
Measuring
• Make sure the steel rule is straight across the
dimension you want to measure.
Good technique Bad technique
39
2.4.1 Steel rule
Lab note:
• Use the steel rule for non important values,
with accuracy to 1/64th of an inch.
40
2.4.2 Vernier caliper
• The vernier caliper is a versatile tool able to
give inside, outside, step and depth
measurements to 0.05mm accuracy.
Source: http://publications.npl.co.uk/npl_web/pdf/mgpg40.pdf
41
• The beam (bar)
of this caliper
has two main
scales : in inches
(above) and in
mm (below).
• There are also
two vernier
scales.
Source: http://www.precisionmeasuringtools.com.au/Precision-Tools-Measuring.aspx
42
• Here is a close up
view of the mm
scales.
– The top scale (on
the main beam, or
bar) is graduated
in 1mm divisions.
– The lower
(vernier) scale (on
the sliding jaw) is
graduated in
0.05mm divisions.
43
• To read the measurement on
the caliper:
– first we note where the last whole
mm is to the left of the zero of the
vernier scale. (Here, the 11mm
divisions is to the left of the zero.)
– then we have to find which
graduation on the vernier scale
exactly coincides with a line on
the main bar scale. (Here the
coinciding lines are 6 which give
the reading of 0.65 mm.
– The total reading is 11 + 0.65 =
11.65 mm.
• Experience will enable the user

to measure accurately to within
0.05mm.
44
• Animation:
http://www.notesandsketches.co.uk/Measuri
ng_Tools_Small.swf
• To practice reading the vernier:

http://www.stefanelli.eng.br/en/en-vernier-ca
liper-pachymeter-calliper-simulator-millimeter
-05-mm.html
• http://members.ozemail.com.au/~rdunlop/Co
plandMain/PhysVernMicroYr11_06.htm 45
• How the vernier caliper can be used in the
workshop:
46
• How the vernier caliper can be used in the
workshop:
Source: http://www.precisionmeasuringtools.com.au/Precision-Tools-Measuring.aspx 47
Lab note:
• Use the vernier caliper for parts that have
tolerances to within ±.003 in. (0.0762 mm)
48
2.4.3 Micrometer caliper
• The micrometer caliper (or simply the
micrometer) is one of the most used
measuring tools in the workshop.
Source: http://www.precisionmeasuringtools.com.au/Precision-Tools-Measuring.aspx 49
• How to hold correctly the micrometer:
50
• The graduated sleeve has a
horizontal line along its
length. Below the line it is
graduated in 1mm
divisions. Above the line it
is graduated in to 0.5mm
divisions.
• The thimble is graduated
into 50 divisions each one
represents 0.01mm.
51
• To measure the gap between the
anvils:
– Read the number of whole mm
divisions showing up to the edge of the
thimble.
– Then check to see if there is a whole
division showing above the line, if there
is it indicates that there are whole and
half mm measurements in the reading.
– To complete the reading, we need to
note the figure on the thimble which
line exactly coincides with the
horizontal line on the sleeve. This
example is showing a reading of 9.65
mm.
52
To take a measurement:
• Clean the fixed and rotating anvils with a soft lint free cloth.
• Opened the micrometer larger than the object to be measured.
• Carefully place the object between the anvils and gently turn the
spindle by the ratchet until the two anvils make contact with the
measuring surfaces.
• Turn the ratchet until you hear it click two or three times. The
ratchet ensures that the same amount of force is applied each time
we take a reading.
• We can now remove the micrometer from the object and read the
measurement; the lock can be used to ensure that the spindle does
not move when we remove the micrometer.
53
• http://www.notesandsketches.co.uk/Measuring_Tools
_Small.swf
• Practice taking micrometer readings:

http://www.stefanelli.eng.br/en/aka-micrometer-calip
er-outside-inch-thousandths.html
• http://members.ozemail.com.au/~rdunlop/CoplandMa
in/PhysVernMicroYr11_06.htm
• Lab note:
• Use the micrometer for parts that need to be accurate
to within .002 in. (0.0508 mm). This includes ALL 54
• Depth micrometers:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y_KFS4SGSxw
55
• Depth micrometers. Read this (in.):
56
• Practice taking micrometer readings:
http://navyaviation.tpub.com/14310/css/1431
0_69.htm
Lab note:
• Use the micrometer for parts that need to be
accurate to within .002 in. (0.0508 mm). This
includes ALL mating parts.
57
For practice
• Read these inch values:
58
For practice
• Read these metric values:
59
For practice
• Reading micrometers:
60
For practice
61
For practice
62

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Material Removal Manufacturing

Founders of ISO, London 1946

– imperial system → (US customary units)

Each block has two faces

3R: 32nds, 64ths, 10ths, 50ths of

• Experience will enable the user

• To practice reading the vernier:

• Practice taking micrometer readings:

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