Structural Principles

Behaviour of Steel Structural Elements

Beam and Column Design Principles

Dr Hamid Jahromi MSc PhD DIC PGCert(LT) FHEA

Module Leader

Senior Lecturer – Construction

Email: H.Jahromi@westminster.ac.uk

Office Hours
Please email for an appointment
Outline
Structural Design Vs Structural Analysis

❑ What is Analysis?

❑ What is Design?
Analysis

❑ Normally in analysis the solution is unique.

The Design Process

Eva Jiricna
 Historical developments
Introduction Historical development of Eurocodes:
Overview • Idea of Eurocodes dates back to 1974
Objectives • Family of design codes
• Harmonisation of treatment
• Removal of barriers to trade
• Framework for development
 Scope of Eurocodes
Introduction Scope of structural Eurocodes:
Overview A total of 10 codes (comprising 58
Objectives documents)

The first 2 codes are material independent:

• EN 1990 – Basis of structural design
• EN 1991 – Actions on structures
 EN 1993: Eurocode 3
Background Eurocode 3 contains six parts:
• EN 1993-1 Generic rules
Overview
• EN 1993-2 Bridges
• EN 1993-3 Towers, masts & chimneys
• EN 1993-4 Silos, tanks & pipelines
• EN 1993-5 Piling
• EN 1993-6 Crane supporting structures
 EN 1993-1
Eurocode 3: Part 1(Generic rules) has 12 sub-parts:
Background

Overview • EN 1993-1-1 General rules

• EN 1993-1-2 Fire
• EN 1993-1-3 Cold-formed thin gauge
• EN 1993-1-4 Stainless steel
• EN 1993-1-5 Plated elements
• EN 1993-1-6 Shells
• EN 1993-1-7 Plates transversely loaded
• EN 1993-1-8 Joints
• EN 1993-1-9 Fatigue
• EN 1993-1-10 Fracture toughness
• EN 1993-1-11 Cables
• EN 1993-1-12 High strength steels
Load combinations

Load factors 1.35 and 1.5 are applied when actions are ‘unfavourable’.
Figure Example of variation of permanent and variable
actions during the design working life of a structure 11
12
 The history of steel construction

The Gherkin – Swiss Re building

• Also known as 30 St Mary Axe

• Built in 2004
• Designed by Norman Foster and Arup
• 180 m (590 ft)
• 10,000 tonnes steel (2,500 t in frame)
• 24,000 m2 glass
• 50% energy of conventional building

13
The history of steel construction

London Eye • Built in 2000

• 130 m (426 ft)
• 1700 tonnes of steel, heavier
than 280 adult African elephants
The history of steel construction

Burj Khalifa Dubai

• 828 m (2716.5 ft)

• 160 stories
• Built in 2009
• 39,000 tonnes of steel
Why is steel such a good construction material?

Petronas Tower Brooklyn Bridge Eiffel Tower

Why is steel such a good construction material?
Advantages of steel

• Strength, resistance
• Design flexibility, adaptability
• Durability, sustainability and
recyclability
Cutty Sark Greenwich
• Speed, lower construction costs
• Ductility
• Expanding existing structures
• Predictable material properties
• Homogeneous material

Emirates Airline cable car

Why is steel such a good construction material?
Advantages of steel construction –
productivity

In the UK, steel accounts for 70% of all non-

domestic framed multi-storey UK
construction.

London Millennium Bridge

Being totally re-usable, steel is the

environmentally friendly product.
Today’s steel structures will almost certainly
be re-used in the buildings of tomorrow.

Gateshead Millennium Bridge

Some disadvantages of steel
• Heavy and expensive to transport
• Maintenance cost
– susceptible to corrosion when exposed to air, water and
humidity, must be pained periodically.
• Fireproofing cost
– Steel is non-combustible material, but it expands
significantly when heated
• Susceptible to buckling
Some disadvantages of steel
• High expansion rate in changing temperatures
• Energy intensive to produce
• Fatigue
– In conditions of repeated stress and changing temperatures,
it can suffer fatigue and cracks, and more corrosion..
How we use steel
Today, steel is one of the most common
materials in the world
Analysis types-UK practice
Simple construction
Most of the multi-storey braced frames in the UK are designed as
‘simple construction’, for which the global analysis assumes
nominally pinned connections between beams and columns;
resistance to horizontal forces is provided by bracing systems or
cores.
• the beams are designed as simply supported
• the columns are designed only for moments arising from a nominal
eccentricity of connection of the beam to the column

22
General approach

General approach:
• Choose an appropriate analysis
• Make an appropriate model
• Apply all actions (loads) and combinations of actions
• Check cross-sections, members and joints
Analysis types

Frame Stability is assured by checking:

• Cross-sections
• Members
• Joints

But will be unsafe unless:

• Frame model
• Loads on frame
• Analysis
are appropriate.
 Characteristic
Gamma factors γM Strength
Gamma factors γM account for material and modelling uncertainties:
3 steel
Background grades:
Overview ➢ S275 225 to 275 N/mm2
➢ S355 295 to 355 N/mm2
➢ S460 400 to 460 N/mm2
➢ Strength depends on the thickness of
the thickest element of the cross-
section.
➢ For I-sections it is the flange.

25 15
 Material properties
Background Material properties are taken from product standards
(generally EN 10025-2). The Young’s modulus of steel should
Overview
be taken as 210000 N/mm2.

26
 Gamma factors γM
Gamma factors γM account for material and modelling uncertainties:
Background

Overview

27
Design process for Tension Members

Member under tension

Where Tension Members are used?
• Bracing members in buildings
Where Tension Members are used?
• Cable-stayed bridges
Where Tension Members are used?
• Suspension bridges
Where Tension Members are used?
• Truss girder and roof truss
What shapes?

Round bar Flat bar Angle Double angle Starred angle

Channel Double Channel W and I sections RHS sections

What shapes?

CHS sections Built up sections

How to design tension members?

Provision of sufficient cross-sectional

area to resist the applied force

force
Required area =
material strength

The connections are the hardest part

Anet for Non staggered fasteners

Anet = A −  d0t

where
t is the thickness
d0 is the diameter of hole

Awareness: Special rules apply for angles connected through one leg (see BS EN
1993-1-8, 3.6.3), and T sections and channels connected through outstands.
Anet for Staggered fasteners
1, 2
Hole
diameter, d0

NEd
p B

Plate s s
thickness, t 2 1

where
s is staggered pitch, the spacing of the centres of two consecutive
holes in the chain measured parallel to the member axis
p is spacing of the centres of the same two holes measured
perpendicular to the member axis
Background
Compression members
Cross-section

Buckling

Example

Exercise

38
Columns in buildings
Columns in stations & airports

Elliptical hollow columns at

Stratford DLR London

Elliptical hollow section at

Heathrow terminal 5
Columns supports
Compression members in trusses
Different column shapes
Introduction
• Steel compression members
– Building columns
– Frame bracing
– Truss members (chord and bracing)
– Useful in both pure compression and beam-columns.
• A stocky member fails by crushing/yielding.
• A slender member fails by buckling.
Column failure

NEd = Design compression force

 Compression members

Crushing or Buckling

Graph from Adina

Buckling Stability

❑ Buckling: “Buckling can be defined as the sudden large deformation of

structure due to a slight increase of an existing load under which the
structure had exhibited little, if any, deformation before the load was
increased.

❑ Column buckling is a curious and unique subject. It is perhaps the only area
of structural mechanics in which failure is not related to the strength of the
material. A column buckling analysis consists of determining the maximum
load a column can support before it collapses. But for long columns, the
collapse has nothing to do with material yield. It is instead governed by the
column's stiffness, both material and geometric
Buckling Stability

❑ Columns have a tendency to buckle under compressive loading. This can be

due to their:

❑ Length
❑ Cross-sectional area
❑ Method of fixing (end connections)
❑ Second moment of area.
❑ Young’s Modulus
Buckling Stability
Buckling Stability

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TUE7DKNBIrU
 Elastic buckling theory
Two bounds: Yielding and buckling

𝐿𝐸 𝐼𝑥𝑥
Slenderness λ= & Radius of gyration r
xx
=
𝑟 𝐴 51
Eurocode: λ = L /i and i is radius of gyration i=√(I/A)
Introduction
• Different shapes are available for beams, choice
depends on the load and span.
• Beams may often be designed on basis of
bending moment resistance.
• Stiffness under serviceability loads is an
important consideration.
• Beams which are unable to move laterally are
termed restrained.
• Co-existent shear forces below 50% of the plastic
shear resistance (Vpl,Rd) do not affect the moment
resistance.
When beams are restrained?
Beams may be considered restrained if:

• Full lateral restraint is

provided by positive
attachment of a floor
system to the top flange of
a simply supported beam.

• Adequate torsional restraint

of the compression flange
is provided, for example by
profiled roof sheeting.

53
When beams are restrained?
Beams may be considered restrained if:
• Closely spaced bracing
elements are provided such that
the minor axis slenderness is
low.

• Sections bent about their minor

axis cannot fail by lateral-
torsional instability .

• It is unlikely that sections with

high torsional and lateral
stiffness (e.g. RHS) will fail in
this way.
Beam shapes and spans
 Design Process to Eurocode 3
Following four factors must be considered and
satisfied to design a restrained beam:

1. Bending Moment Resistance

2. Shear Resistance
3. Combined Bending and Shear
4. Serviceability

CE 2203 Analysis & Design of Structural Elements Dr Jawed Qureshi: Sep 2013 Slide ST6-
56
Serviceability
• As per EC3, deflection checks should be made
against unfactored variable actions.
• Permanent loads should not be included.
• The maximum deflection calculated must not
exceed the deflection limit.
• The deflection limits are not given directly in
Eurocode 3, instead, reference must be made to
the National Annex.
Serviceability – Max deflections
Table ST6-16: Standard deflections and corresponding maximum deflection
equations
Serviceability – deflection limits
Table ST6-17: Vertical Deflection Limits from NA 2.23 Clause 7.2.1(1) B