Steel Structures CE418

(Introduction)
By: Engr. Muhammad Noman
DCE, IIU Islamabad
Email: muhammad.noman@iiu.edu.pk
Steel Structures CE418
• Pre-requisite: None
• Credit Hours: 3
• Contact Hours: 48

Course Objective: To acquaint students with use of steel as a

structural component and develop their ability to design steel
structures.
Reference Books
• William Segui, Steel Design, CENGAGE Learning,5th Edition
(2013)
• Gaylord, E.H. and C.N. Gaylord, Design of Steel Structures,
McGraw-Hill Companies; (Latest-Edition)
• Charles G. Salmon, John E. Johnson, Faris A. Malhas, Steel
Structures: Design and Behaviour, 5th Edition (2008), Prentice
Hall.
• Spiegel & L. Burner. Applied Structural Steel Design, Prentice
Hall, 2002
• Steel Structures by Zahid Ahmed Siddiqi, 4th Edition, 2017
• LRFD Steel Design Aids, 4th Edition by Zahid Ahmad Siddique
• 2005 AISC Specification for Structural Steel Buildings and the
13th Edition AISC Steel Construction Manual.
 Course Learning Outcomes

S. No. Description Domain PLO

1 Describe basic knowledge of steel structures as C1 01
structural elements.
2 Design structural steel tension members, C5 03
compression members, roof truss, welded and
bolted connections
Course Content
• 1. Introduction
• Use of steel as a structural material
• Mechanical properties
• Types and shapes of structural steel
members
• Specifications and design codes
• Design philosophies, load and safety
factors.
• 2. Fundamentals of Working Stress
Method
• Overview of Allowable Stress Design
(ASD)
• Service load and allowable stresses
• 3. LRFD Method of Design
• Factor of safety, loads and load
combination.
• Concept of load and resistance
factors
• Plastic design and limits on design
• Analysis and design of tension
members
• Analysis and design of Compression
Members.
• Local and overall stability
• Euler's buckling load in columns.
• Analysis and design of beams.
• Compact, non-compact and slender
sections
• Bending strength
• Shear Strength
• Lateral torsional buckling.
• Biaxial Bending
• Purlins, sag rods
• Beam-column and axial-flexure
interaction
• Second order effects
• Moment magnification.
• Plate girder proportioning and design.
• Simple welded and bolted connections
• Overview of moment and shear
connections
Evaluation Criteria
Examination Weightage

Final Term 50%

Mid Term 20%

Project (CEP) 10%

Assignment 10%

Quiz 10%
Background (Iron)
• Iron (Fe, Atomic number 26) is a metal extracted mainly from the
iron ore hematite.
• It oxidizes readily in air and water to form Fe2O3 and is rarely
found as a free element.
• Iron is believed to be the sixth most abundant element in the
Universe.
Background (Cast Iron)
• A hard, brittle, nonmalleable iron-based alloy containing 2 % -
4.5 % carbon and 0.5 % - 3 % silicon.

Applications:
• Piping & Fittings
• Ornamental Ironwork
• Hardware
• Railings
• Circular Stairs
• Manhole Cover
• Gratings
Background (Wrought Iron)
• A tough, malleable, readily soft iron that is easily forged &
welded. Fatigue & corrosion resistant.
• Commercially pure iron, containing only approximately 0.2%
carbon.

Applications:
• Piping & Fittings for Plumbing,
• Heating & Air-conditioning
• Ornamental Ironwork
• Railing, Table, Chair, Door
• Window Grill, etc.
Background (Steel)
• Alloys of iron and carbon.
• Carbon content is no more than 2%.
• Alloy elements is composed of phosphorous, sulfur, oxygen,
nitrogen, manganese, silicon, aluminum, copper, nickel, etc.
Steel
• STEEL is a common building material used throughout the
construction industry.
• Its primary purpose is to form a skeleton for the building or
structure essentially the part of the structure that holds
everything up and together.
• Steel has many advantages when compared to other structural
building materials such as concrete, timber, plastics and newer
composite materials.
Steel (Classification based on
Carbon Content)
Name of Steel Carbon Content in Steel
Very Low Carbon Steel < 0.1 %

Mild Steel Up to 0.25 %

Medium Carbon Steel 0.25 – 0.7 %

High Carbon Steel (Hard Steel) 0.7 – 1.5 %

Steel Structures
Steel Structures
• A structure which is made from a combination of structural
STEEL members designed to carry loads and provide adequate
rigidity is known as Steel structure.
Advantages of Steel Structures
• Reliability
• Industrial Behavior
• Lesser Construction Time
• High Strength & Light Weight Nature
• Uniformity, Durability & Performance
• Elasticity
• Ductility & Warning Before Failure
• Additions to existing Structures
• Possible Reuse
• Scrap Value
• Watertight
• Airtight
• Long Span Construction
• Temporary Construction
Disadvantages of Steel
Construction
• High Maintenance Costs
• More Corrosion
• Fire proofing Costs
• Susceptibility to Buckling
• Higher Initial cost
• Less Availability
• Aesthetics
Loads
• External forces that act on a structure are called loads.
These loads cause stresses, displacement and
deformation in structure.
• Determination of loads for which a given structure may
be designed for is a difficult problem.

Questions to be Answered:
• What loads may structure be called upon during its
lifetime?
• In what combinations these loads occur?
• The probability that a specific live load be exceeded at
some time during lifetime of structure?
Types of Loads
• The design loading for a structure is often specified in codes.
• The ultimate responsibility for the design lies with the
structural engineer.

Broad categories:
1. Dead load
2. Live load
3. Earthquake load
4. Wind Load
5. Retained Water Load
6. Retained Soil Load
7. Load due to Temperature Variation
8. Environmental Loads
Types of Loads (Cont’d)
Dead load:
• Dead loads consist of the weights
of the various structural members
and the weights of any objects
that are permanently attached to
the structure.
• Dead Loads consist of the weight
of all materials and fixed
equipment incorporated into the
building or other structure (UBC
Section 1602).
• Dead loads can be reasonably
estimated if the member
dimensions and material densities
are known.
Types of Loads (Cont’d)
Live load:
• Live Loads can vary both in their magnitude and location.
• They may be caused by the weights of objects temporarily
placed on a structure, moving vehicles, or natural forces.
Types of Loads (Cont’d)
Environmental Loads
• Environmental loads include snow load, rain load, and flood
load.
a) Wind Load:
• Wind Load is one of the two main loads that can be applied
to a structure.
Types of Loads (Cont’d)
a) Wind Load: When structures
block the flow of wind, the wind’s
kinetic energy is converted into
potential energy of pressure, which
causes a wind loading.
• Wind pressure to be used in
design should be based on a wind
velocity having a specific mean
recurrence interval.
• The flow of air close to ground is
slowed by surface roughness,
which depends on density, size
and height of buildings, trees,
vegetation etc.
• Velocity at 33ft (UBC: Sec 1616)
above ground is used as the basic
values for design purpose.
Types of Loads (Cont’d)
b) Seismic / Earthquake Load:
• These loadings result from the
structure’s distortion caused by
the ground’s motion and the
lateral resistance of the
structure.
• Earthquake loads are necessary
to consider in earthquake prone
regions.
Types of Loads (Cont’d)
b) Seismic / Earthquake Load:
Seismic Loads are of two types:
i) Body Waves
ii) Surface Waves
Types of Loads (Cont’d)
Types of Loads (Cont’d)
 Types of Loads (Body Waves)

• P waves are also

called compressional
or longitudinal waves,
they compress and
expand (oscillate) the
ground back and forth
in the direction of
travel
• P wave is the fastest
wave.
 Types of Loads (Body Waves)

• S Wave—secondary
body waves that
oscillate the ground
perpendicular to the
direction of wave
travel. They travel
about 1.7 times slower
than P waves.
 Types of Loads (Surface
Waves)
• Rayleigh Waves—
surface waves that
move in an elliptical
motion, producing
both a vertical and
horizontal component
of motion in the
direction of wave
propagation.
 Types of Loads (Surface
Waves)
• Love Waves—surface
waves that move
parallel to the Earth’s
surface and
perpendicular to the
direction of wave
propagation.
Types of Loads (Velocity -
Amplitude)
Earthquake Hazards of
Pakistan
• Before 2007: No single agreed Hazard Map
• 2007 onward: Legally binding quantifiable Seismic Hazard Map
475-Yrs return period
• Large earthquakes expected (> Mw8 )
Earthquake Hazards of
Pakistan (Cont’d)
• Seismic Hazard Map 2007 Pak. : based on 475 yrs return
period [BCP 2007]
• More than 95% Pak in Zone 2A and above (≥ 0.1 g)
Design Philosophies
• Over the years, design procedures have been developed by
engineers to provide satisfactory margins of safety.
• These procedures were based on the engineer’s confidence in
the analysis of the load effects and the strength of the
materials being provided.
• As analysis techniques improved and quality control on
materials became better, the design procedures changed as
well.
• Structure and Structural Members should have adequate
strength, stiffness and toughness to ensure proper functioning
during service life.
• Reserve Strength should be available to cater for:

– Occasional overloads and underestimation of loads

– Variability of strength of materials from those specified
– Variation in strength arising from quality of workmanship and
construction practices
Design Philosophies (Cont’d)
• Structural Design must provide adequate margin of
safety irrespective of Design Method.
• Design Approach should take into account the probability
of occurrence of failure in the design process.
• An important goal in design is to prevent limit state from
being reached.
• It is not economical to design a structure so that none of
its members or components could ever fail.
• Thus, it is necessary to establish an acceptable level of
risk or probability of failure.

❖The Limit State is the condition in which a structure

would be considered to have failed to fulfill the purpose
for which it was built.
Design Philosophies (Cont’d)
• Brittle behavior is to be avoided as it will imply a sudden loss
of load carrying capacity when elastic limit is exceeded.
• Reinforced concrete can be made ductile by limiting the steel
reinforcement.
• To determine the acceptable margin of safety, opinion should
be sought from experience and qualified group of engineers.
• In steel design AISC manuals for ASD & LRFD guidelines can be
accepted as reflection of such opinions.
• Any design procedure require the confidence of Engineer on
the analysis of load effects and strength of the materials.
• The two distinct procedures employed by designers are
Allowable Stress Design (ASD) & Load & Resistance Factor
Design (LRFD).
Allowable Stress Design
• Safety in the design is obtained by specifying, that the effect
of the loads should produce stresses that is a fraction of the
yield stress fy, say one half.

Because the specifications

set limits on the stresses,
this became known as
allowable stress design (ASD)
Allowable Stress Design
(Cont’d)
Drawbacks in ASD
• Allowable stress design does not recognize that different loads
have different levels of uncertainty. Dead, live, and wind loads
are all treated equally in ASD. The safety factor is applied to
the resistance side of the design inequality.

Allowable material stress > Maximum material stress

• For ASD, fixed values of design loads are selected, usually from
a specification or design code. The varying degree of
predictability of the different load types is not considered.
Allowable Stress Design
(Cont’d)
• The safety factor chosen is based on experience and
judgment, quantitative measures of risk cannot be
determined for ASD. Only the trend is known:
❑ If the safety factor is higher, the number of failures is lower
• However, if the safety factor is increased by a certain amount,
it is not known by how much this increases the probability of
survival.
• It is more meaningful to decision makers to say,
“This bridge has a nominal probability of 1 in 10,000 of failing
in 75 years of service,”
than to say,
“This bridge has a safety factor of 2.3”
Load & Resistance Factor
Design (LRFD)
• To overcome the deficiencies of ASD, the LRFD method is
based on:
Strength of Materials
• It consider the variability not only in resistance but also in the
effects of load.
Factored Capacity > Factored forces
• It provides measure of safety related to probability of failure.
• LRFD accounts for both variability in resistance and load.
• It achieves fairly uniform levels of safety for different limit
states.
• Its disadvantage is change in design philosophy from previous
method.
Comparison of ASD and LRFD
Design Approaches
• ASD combines Dead and Live Loads and treats them in the
same way
• In LRFD different load factors are assigned to Dead Loads and
Live Loads which is appealing
• Changes in load factors and resistance factors are much easier
to make in LRFD compared to changing the allowable stress in
ASD
• LRFD is intrinsically appealing as it requires better
understanding of behavior of the structure in its limit states
• Design approach similar to LRFD is being followed in design of
concrete structures in form of Ultimate Strength Design --
why not use similar approach design of steel structures?
Comparison of ASD and LRFD
Design Approaches
• ASD indirectly incorporates the Factors of Safety by limiting
the stress whereas LRFD aims to specify Factors of Safety
directly by specifying Resistance Factors and Load Factors
• LRFD is more rational as different Factors of Safety can be
assigned to different loadings such as Dead Loads, Live Loads,
Earthquake Loads and Impact Loads
• LRFD considers variability not only in resistance but also in the
effects of load which provides measure of safety related to
probability of failure
• It achieves fairly uniform levels of safety for different limit
states.
• ASD still remains as a valid Design Method
Hot Rolled Structural Shapes
Hot Rolled Structural Shapes
Wide Flange Shape
• Wide flange beams are
designated by the letter W
followed by the nominal depth in
inches and the weight in pounds
per foot.
• Thus W12 × 19 designates a wide
flange beam with a depth of 12
inches and a nominal weight of
19 pounds per foot.
• The same section will be denoted
as W310 x 28.3 (mm x kg/m)
American Standard Beam (S
Shape)
• American standard beam is generally
known as S beam or S shape.
• S shape is a rolled section with two
parallel flanges connected by a web.
• S shapes have relatively narrow
flanges.
• The designation of the S shape gives
information about the depth and
weight per unit length.
• For example, S12 X 50 (alternately,
S310X74) means 12 inches depth and
50 pounds per foot weight per unit
length.
C (Channels)
• Structural C channels, also known
as C beams are structural beams
with C shaped cross section.
• Top and bottom plates of a C
channel are named as flanges and
the vertical plate which connects
the flanges is named as web.
• For example, C15 X 50 (C380X74)
means 15 inches depth and 50
pounds per foot weight per unit
length.
L (Angle Shape)
• The designation of the steel angles (also known as L Shapes)
gives information about the width of each leg and thickness.
• For example, L 3 × 4 × 1⁄4 (alternately L102X76X6.4) means a 3
× 4-inch angle of 1⁄4-inch thickness.
• Angles are often used as tension members of trusses and
towers, framing members for machine structures, brackets.
Tee (WT Shapes)
• These are called structural tees.
• These are obtained by splitting W, S or M shapes and are
called WT, ST, or MT shapes respectively.
• A WT13.5 x 51 is a structural tee with a nominal depth of
13.5in and a weight of 51 lb/ft and is obtained by splitting the
W27 x 102 section.
HSS (Hollow Structural
Sections)
Cold Formed Shapes
• These sections are formed from thin high strength steel alloy
plates under normal temperature.
Cold Formed Shapes (Cont’d)
Thank You