01

DESIGN OF STEEL
STRUCTURES
 02

DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES

Course Description
This course covers the mechanical properties of structural steel and the code-procedures
(AISC) for member design of steel structures.
Syllabus:
❑ Introduction to steel structures
❑ Design and analysis of tension members
❑ Compression members
❑ Design of beams
❑ Biaxial bending
❑ Beam-column
❑ Plate girder
❑ Bolted connection
❑ Welded connection
References:
❑ Steel Design by Segui, Fourth Edition, 2007.
❑ Structural Steel Design by Mc Cormac and Csernak, Fifth Edition, 2012.
❑ AISC-LRFD Manual. Handbook and Specifications 13th edition
 03
INTRODUCTION TO
STEEL STRUCTURES
❑ 1. INTRODUCTION
❑ 2. PROPERTIES OF STRUCTURAL STEEL
❑ 3. STEEL DESIGN CONCEPT
❑ 4. DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS
❑ 5. ADVANTAGES OF STEEL
❑ 6. DISADVANTAGES OF STEEL
❑ 7. STRUCTURAL STEEL SHAPES
❑ 8. LOAD FACTORS, RESISTING FACTORS (LRFD)
❑ 9. PROJECTIONS OF SHAPES
1. INTRODUCTION
STRUCTURAL STEEL
04
1.1. TYPES OF STEEL STRUCTURES

1. Bridges : For rail roads , highways and pedestrians.

2. Buildings : Including rigid framed , simple connected frames , load bearing wall, cable-stayed and cantilevered.
3. Other structures : Including power transmission towers , towers of radars and TV installations , telephone relay
towers , water supply facilities and transportation terminal facilities , including rail road trucking , aviation and
marine, ….etc.

Power transmission
Bridge Rigid Frame tower Building Frame

telephone relay towers Water tank Rail road Marine structure

1.2. STRUCTURAL STEEL
05
❑ Structural steel is usually hot rolled, welded from flat plates or cold formed from flat plates to form structural sections.
❑ Structural steels grades are commonly referred to by the designations given by the ASTM, which are based on a steel’s
characteristics and chemical composition. Generally, structural steels are divided into three groups:
Carbon steels, High-strength low-alloy steels, and Corrosion resistance High-strength low-alloy steels.
❑ One of the most common structural steels is a mild carbon steel ASTM A36, which has ayield point of 36 ksi and tensile
strength 58-80 ksi.
❑ Other commonly used structural steel are ASTM A992 and ASTM A572 Grade 50 which both has a yield point of 50 ksi and
tensile strength 65 ksi. TABLE 2-3 AISC manual page 2-39 (PDF page 171)
❑ ASTM A992 and A572 are the primary high-strength steels used for the main structural members in building construction
in the United States, while ASTM A36 steels are typically used for smaller members such as angles, channels, and plates.

2. PROPERTIES OF STRUCTURAL STEEL

2.1. STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM

The two most important properties of structural steel used in

structural design are the tensile and ultimate strengths. If a
test specimen is subjected to an axial load P, the stress and
strain can be computed as follows:
 2.2 GRADES AND MODULUS OF ELASTICITY
06
The yield strength, Fy , and ultimate strength, Fu for commonly used steels are :

For all grades above the modulus of elasticity, E = 29,000 ksi (200 000 MPa) is often used for design. In the elastic range,
Poisson’s ratio of steel is about 0.3.

3. STEEL DESIGN CONCEPT

The design of a structural member entails the selection of a cross section that will safely and economically resist the
applied loads. Economy usually means minimum weight (minimum amount of steel. This amount corresponds to the
cross section with the smallest weight per foot, which is the one with the smallest cross-sectional area. The following
design approaches can be used in steel design:

3.1. ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN

The ASD method has been around for many decades and is still in use today. As with wood and other materials that also
use this method, it is based on the premise that the allowable strength must be greater than the actual anticipated
strength (required strength). Strength can be an axial force strength as in tension or compression members, a flexural
strength, or a shear strength.
The allowable stress will be in the elastic range of the material, This approach to design is also called elastic design or
working stress design, Working stresses are those resulting from the working loads, which are the applied loads, Working
loads are also known as service loads.

The AISC ASD specifications are based on this approach (AISC, 1995).
3.2 LOAD AND RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN, LRFD
07
The LRFD method is relatively new – the first edition of LRFD Manual of Steel Construction was in 1986 (the 2nd edition
issued in 1999). It is based on a statistical approach (Load factors are applied to the service loads, and a member is
selected that will have enough strength to resist the factored loads. In addition, the theoretical strength of the member
is reduced by the application of a resistance factor). Design by the LRFD typically yields lighter-weight members and is
therefore more efficient. This method is gaining increased support by architects and engineers and will most likely
replace the ASD method.

Factored strength of a component ≥ factored nominal load effect

4. DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS

The specifications of most interest to the structural steel designer are those published by the following organizations

❑ AISC = American Institute of Steel Construction:

deals with structural design of steel buildings.
❑ AASHTO = The American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials:
deals with design of highway bridges and related structures.
❑ AREMA = The American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association:
deals with design of railway bridges and related structures.
❑ AISI = The American Iron and Steel Institute:
deals with cold-formed steel.
4.1 AISC MANUALS
08
AISC Manual contains AISC specifications and numerous design aids in the form of tables and graphs as well as
catalogue of most widely available structural shapes. The first nine editions of the Manual were based on ASD. The nine
edition was followed by editions one through three of the LFRD-based manuals. Lectures based version, which is
incorporates both ASD and LRFD is the thirteenth edition.
A comparative study of the cost differences between allowable stress design and LRFD methods for steel high-rise
building structures indicated a cost savings of up to 6.9% in favor of the LRFD method

4.2 UNITS CONVERSION

Some conversion factors, between Inch-Pound units and SI units, Useful in steel structure design
 5. ADVANTAGES OF STEEL AS A STRUCTURAL MATERIAL
Advantages of Steel as a Structural Material 09

1- High Strength:
This means that the weight of structure that made of steel will be small. So no matter how large the overall structure is, the
steel sections will be small and lightweight, unlike other building materials.

Long span steel bridge

Tall building Cantilever building Cantilever bridge

2- Uniformity:
Properties of steel do not change with time as oppose to concrete, less deformation in the structures due to sustained load.

3- Elasticity:
Steel follows Hooke’s Law very accurately
Hooke's Law - If a metal is lightly stressed, a temporary deformation, presumably permitted by an elastic displacement of
the atoms in the space lattice, takes place. Removal of the stress results in a gradual return of the metal to its original shape
and dimensions.
4- Ductility: 10
A very desirable of property of steel in which steel can withstand
extensive deformation without failure under high tensile
stresses, i.e., it gives warning before failure takes place.

5- Toughness:
is the ability of material to absorb energy in large amounts. Steel
has both strength and ductility. Toughness allowing steel
members to bent, hammered, sheared and punched with holes
without visible damage.

Bent hammered Sheared

6- Additions to Existing Structures:

Example: new bays or even entire new
wings can be added to existing frame
buildings, and steel bridges may easily be
widened.

Welds Bolts Rivets

6. DISADVANTAGES OF STEEL AS A STRUCTURAL MATERIAL
11

Although steel has all this advantages as structural material, it also has many disadvantages that make reinforced concrete as a
replacement for construction purposes. For example, steel columns sometimes can not provide the necessary strength because
of buckling, whereas R/C columns are generally sturdy and massive, i.e., no buckling problems occur.

1- Maintenance Cost: Steel structures are susceptible to 2- Fireproofing Cost: Steel is incombustible material,
corrosion when exposed to air, water, and humidity. They however, its strength is reduced tremendously at high
must be painted periodically. temperatures due to common fires

corrosion painting Insulating steel frame Fire fighting system

3- Fatigue: The strength of structural steel member can be reduced if

this member is subjected to cyclic loading.

4- Susceptibility to Buckling: For most structures, the use of steel
columns is very economical because of their high strength to- weight
ratios. However, as the length and slenderness of a compressive
column is increased, its danger of buckling increases.
Global buckling
Local buckling
12
5- Brittle Fracture: Under certain conditions steel
may lose its ductility, and brittle fracture may
occur at places of stress concentration. Fatigue
type loadings and very low temperatures trigger
the situation.
7. STRUCTURAL STEEL SHAPES 13
There are two types of steel shapes available:
• Rolled steel shapes—These are standardized rolled shapes with dimensions and properties
obtained from part 1 of the AISC manual page 1-1 to 1-125 (PDF page 7-131)
• Built-up shapes—Where standardized structural shapes cannot be used (e.g., where the load
to be supported exceeds the capacity of the sections listed in the AISC), built-up shapes could be
made from plate stock. Examples include plate girders and box girders.
Rolled shapes are most commonly used for building construction, while built-up shapes are used
in bridge construction.

7.1 STANDARD STRUCTURAL (ROLLED) SHAPES

1- Wide-flanged: W-shapes
Commonly used as beams or columns in steel
buildings.

2- S-shapes (or I-Shape)

S-shapes are similar to W-shapes except that
the inside flange surfaces are sloped.
Commonly used as beams.

12
3-HP-shapes 14
HP-shapes are similar to W-shapes and are
commonly used in bearing pile foundations. They
have thicker flanges and webs, and the nominal
depth of these sections is usually approximately
equal to the flange width, with the flange and
web thicknesses approximately equal..

4-C-Shape (Channel)

5-T-Shapes (WT- or ST- Shapes )

Structural tees are made by cutting a W-shape or S-shape in half. For
example, if a W14 * 90 is cut in half, the resulting shapes will be WT 7*45,
where the nominal depth is 7 in. and the self-weight of each piece is 45
lb./ft. WT-shapes are commonly used as brace members and as top and
bottom chords of trusses. Similarly, ST-shapes are made from S-shapes.
6-Angle (L-shapes) 15
they are used as lintels to support
brick cladding, as web members in
trusses and they are also used as
bracings.

7-Hollow Structural Sections (HSS shapes) 8-Pipes

Hollow structural section (HSS) members are rectangular, square,
or round tubular members that are commonly used as columns,
hangers, and braced-frame members. HSS members are not as
susceptible to lateral torsional buckling and torsion as W-shape
or other open sections.
Structural pipes are round structural tubes similar to
HSS members that are sometimes used as columns.
9- Bars
Bars can have circular, square or rectangular cross
sections.
10- Plates (PL) 16

7.2 BUILT-UP SHAPES

 7.3 COLD FORMED SECTION
17
In additional to the hot-rolled steel shapes, another category of
steel products for structural applications is cold formed steel.
Structural shapes of this type are created by bending thin material
such as sheet steel or plate into desired shape without heating.
Only relatively thin material can be used, and the resulting shapes
are suitable only for light applications. The thickness of these
shapes vary from about 0.01 in up to about 0.25 in. AISI ( American
Iron and Steel Institute) deals with cold formed steel design. Hot-Rolling Cold-formed

Channels Zees I-shaped double channels Angles Hat sections

8. LOAD FACTORS, RESISTING FACTORS, AND LOAD COMBINATIONS FOR LRFD

Strength Reduction Or Resistance Factors

The strength reduction or resistance
factors (ø) are specified for various limit
states in the AISC specification, and are
shown in Table 2.
 Load Combinations And Load Factors 18

Where: D =Dead load, L= Floor live load, , Lr= Roof live load, W =Wind load, S = Snow load, R = Rain load and E= Earthquake
load. The commonly control combinations for building design under gravity loads are combination No.2.

9. PROJECTIONS OF SHAPES
 19

DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF

TENSION MEMBERS

❑ 1. INTRODUCTION
❑ 2. NET AND EFFECTIVE NET AREA
❑ 3. FAILURE MODES OF TENSION MEMBERS
❑ 4. TENSILE STRENGTH
❑ 5. DESIGN ON TENSION MEMBERS
❑ 6. TABLES FOR THE DESIGN OF TENSION MEMBERS
❑ 7. TENSION RODS
1. INTRODUCTION 20

Tension members are structural elements that subjected

to axial tensile forces. Tension members do not buckle.
Therefore, steel can be used most efficiently as tension
members. They are used in various types of structures
and include:
truss members,
bracing for building and bridges,
cables in suspended roofs,
cables in suspension and cable-stayed bridges,
hanger and sag rods,
towers and tie rods…. etc
Any cross-sectional configuration may be used, because for any given section, the only determinant of the strength of a 21
tension member is the cross-sectional area. Different types of sections used as tension members are shown below.
Circular rods and rolled angle shapes are frequently used. Built up shapes either from plates, rolled shapes or a
combination of plates and rolled shapes are sometimes used when large loads must be resist. The most common built-up
shapes is the double –angle section which available in AISC manual.

❑ Steel cables are constructed of a number of wire ropes or strands have very
high yield strength in the range of 200 to 250 ksi. Thus, cables are particularly
suitable for covering large spans and are used in long-span suspension bridges,
cable roofs, and cable-stayed bridges. Cables, of course, are flexible. To provide
stiffness, cable structures may be stiffened by adding stiffening members.

❑ When the magnitude of tensile force is small in a tension member, solid round
or rectangular bars are used.

❑ For larger tensile forces or when more stiffness is required, round or

rectangular tubes may be used. Round tubes or pipes might be preferred when
the tension member is exposed to high-wind condition. Connection details for
round tube, however, are cumbersome to construct. .

❑ Single angles are commonly used as tension members, for example, as bracing
for carrying lateral forces due to wind or earthquake. Angle end connection is
simple but eccentric to its centroidal axis. The eccentric application of tensile
force produces bending stresses in members which are often ignored in design
practice. Compared with an angle, a channel connected to the joint at its web
often produces less eccentricity, since the centroid of most channels is close to
their web. For carrying a large tensile force, W sections are used.
 22
❑ For a very large tensile force,
built-up sections (for example,
channels with lacing bars) or
double angles may be used.

2. NET AND EFFECTIVE NET AREA

The stress in an axially loaded tension member is given by f = P/A , where, P is the magnitude of load, and A is the cross-
sectional area normal to the load. For example, consider an 8 x ½ in. bar connected to a gusset plate and loaded in tension as
shown below
Area of bar at section a – a = 8 x ½ = 4 in2
Area of bar at section b – b = (8 – 2 x 7/8 ) x ½ = 3.12 in2

Therefore, by definition (Equation 4.1) the reduced area of

section b – b will be subjected to higher stresses

The unreduced area of the member is called its gross area = Ag

The reduced area of the member is called its net area =An

Note: Gusset Plate: is a connection element whose purpose is

to transfer the load from the member to a support of another
member
2.1 NET AREA
23

When tension members are connected by welding, the total cross-sectional

area is available for transferring the tension. When the connection is done by
bolting (or riveting), holes must be made in the member. These holes P P
evidently reduce the cross-sectional area available for transferring the
tension. Thus, the net area of the section is the gross area minus deductions
for the holes.
P

P
P

P
P

P
2.1.1 EFFECT OF STAGGERED HOLES s s 24
A
Holes are sometimes staggered, as shown. Staggering of the holes
increase the net area of the section. In figure above the plate may B
fail along section ABCD or section ABECD. According to the E g
approximate procedure provided by LRFD B2, the net width (wn) is P P
obtained by deducing the sum of the diameters of all the holes g
located on the zigzag line from the gross width (wg) and the C
adding for each inclined line such as BE the quantity s2 /4g.
D

Where: s = the center-to-center spacing of the two consecutive

holes in the direction of stress (pitch) and g = the transverse
center-to-center spacing of the same two holes (gage)
Multiplying Eq. (4) by the thickness and subs. Since An = Wn t and
Ag = Wg t yields
 When staggered holes are in different 25
elements of the cross section, the
shape can be visualized as a plate, like
angle or channel or even if it is an I-
shape.

2.2 EFFECTIVE AREA

❑ The connection has a significant influence on the performance

of a tension member. A connection almost always weakens the
member, and a measure of its influence is called joint efficiency.
❑ Joint efficiency is a function of: (a) material ductility;
(b) fastener spacing; (c) stress concentration at holes; (d)
fabrication procedure; and (e) shear lag. All factors contribute
to reducing the effectiveness but shear lag is the most
important.
❑ Shear lag occurs when the tension force is not transferred
simultaneously to all elements of the cross-section. This will
occur when some elements of the cross-section are not
connected. A consequence of this partial connection is that the
connected element becomes overloaded and the unconnected
part is not fully stressed as shown in the figure.
shear lag can be accounted for by using a reduced or effective net area Ae. Shear lag affects both bolted and welded 26
connections. Therefore, the effective net area concept applied to both types of connections.

Where, the reduction factor (Shear lag factor) U is given in AISC D3.3 Table 3.1, Sect. D5 page 29 (PDF page 1506) as following:

1. For any type of tension member except plates and round HSS with ℓ > 1.3 D

Where x is the distance from the centroid of the connected

area to the plane of the connection, and L is the length of the
connection in the direction of load
❑ If the member has two symmetrically located planes of
connection, x is measured from the centroid of the
nearest one – half of the area.

❑ For bolted connections, L is measured from center to ❑ For welded connections, L is measured from one end of
center of the bolts (largest distance) as shown: the connection to other. If there are weld segments of
different length in the direction of load, L is the length
of the longest segment.
2. Plates . 27

-For ℓ ≥ 2w → U=1.0
-For 1.5w ≤ ℓ ≤ 2w → U=0.8
-For w ≤ ℓ ≤ 1.5w → U=0.75

3. Round HSS with ℓ > 1.3 D → U = 1.0

4. Single Angle .

5. W, M, S, or HP, or Tees Cut from These Shapes

 AISC manual page 1-40 (PDF page 46) 28

AISC manual page 1-40 (PDF page 46)

 29

AISC manual page 1-40 (PDF page 46)

3. FAILURE MODES OF TENSION MEMBERS 30

A tension member can fail by reaching one of two limit states:

1. Excessive deformation (tensile yielding failure)
Excessive deformation can occur due to the yielding of the gross section along the length of
the member means, can be prevented by limiting stresses on the gross section to less than
the yield stress Fy
2. Fracture (tensile rupture failure)
Excessive deformation
Tensile rupture occurs when the stress on the effective area of the section is large enough to
cause the member to fracture, which usually occurs across a line of bolts where the tension
member is weakest. Namely fracture of the net section can occur if the stress at the net
section reaches the ultimate stress Fu
3. Shear Block failure
For some connection configurations, the tension member can fail due to ‘tear-out’ of Tensile rupture
material at the connected end. This is called block shear. This failure plane usually occurs
along the path of the centerlines of the bolt holes for bolted connections. This type of failure
could also occur along the perimeter of welded connections.
For certain connection configurations where tensile failure could be accompanied by shear
failure such that a block of the tension member tears away, for example, the single angle
tension member connected as shown in the Figure below is subjected to the phenomenon of
block shear.
Block shear
- Block shear strength is determined as the sum of the shear strength on a failure path and
the tensile strength on a perpendicular segment:
Block shear strength = net section fracture strength on shear path + gross yielding strength on the tension path
OR
Block shear strength = gross yielding strength of the shear path + net section fracture strength of the tension path
 31
For the previous case shown, shear failure will occur along the longitudinal section a-b and tension failure will occur along
the transverse section b-c. Also see below figures
4. TENSILE STRENGTH 32

Tension members according to LRFD designed to resist factored axial load of Pu and

1. Yielding on gross section 3. Block Shear

2. Fracture in effective net area

The design strength of a tension

member is the smaller of limit
states (gross yielding, net section
fracture, or block shear failure). The
member design strength must be
greater than the ultimate factored
design load in tension.
 33

AISC manual page 2-39

(PDF page 171)

AISC manual page 1-42

(PDF page 48)
Example 5: Determine the design tension strength for a single channel C15 x 50 34
connected to a 0.5 in. thick gusset plate as shown in Figure. Assume that the holes are
for 3/4 in. diameter bolts and that the plate is made from structural steel with
yieldstress (Fy) equal to 50 ksi and ultimate stress (Fu) equal to 65 ksi.

C15 X 50-AISC Manual page 1-34 (PDF page 40)

Thus block shear is the critical case and the design tension strength of the member is
445.13 kips
5. DESIGN ON TENSION MEMBERS 35
The design of a tension member involves finding the lightest steel section (angle, Example 6: For the member of
wide-flange, or channel section) with design strength (φPn) greater than or equal example 5. The service loads are 35
to the maximum factored design tension load (Pu) acting on it. kips dead load in additional member
weight and 15 kips live load.
Investigate this member for
- Pu is determined by structural analysis for factored load combinations compliance with AISC specifications.
- φt Pn is the design strength based on the gross section yielding, net section Solution
fracture, and block shear rupture limit states.
The design of a tension member can be summarized as follows:
1. Determine the minimum gross area from the tensile yielding failure mode:
Combination 1

2. Determine the minimum net area from the tensile fracture failure mode:
Combination 2

where the net area is found from :

the member is satisfactory

3. Use the larger Ag value from equations (13) and (14), and select a trial member size based on the larger value of Ag.
 36
4. For tension members, AISC specification Section D1 suggests that the slenderness ratio KL/rmin should not be greater
than or equal 300 to prevent flapping or flutter of the member,

Where:
K =Effective length factor (usually assumed to be 1.0 for tension members),
L =Unbraced length of the tension member, and
rmin = Smallest radius of gyration of the member.

6. TABLES FOR THE DESIGN OF TENSION MEMBERS

Part 5 of the Manual AISC manual page 5-5 (PDF page 732) contain tables to assist the design of tension members of
various cross sectional shapes. The AISC manual tabulates the tension design strength of standard steel sections -
Include: wide flange shapes, angles, tee sections, and double angle sections.

❑ The net section fracture strength is tabulated for an assumed value of U = 0.75, obviously because the precise
connection details are not known.
❑ For all W, Tee, angle and double-angle sections, Ae is assumed to be = 0.75 Ag
❑ The engineer can first select the tension member based on the tabulated gross yielding and net section fracture
strengths, and then check the net section fracture strength and the block shear strength using the actual connection
details.
37
Example 8: Design a member to carry a factored maximum 2 in 4 in 38
tension load of 100 kips. Assume that the member is a wide
flange connected through the flanges using eight ¾ in. 1.5 in
diameter bolts in two rows of four each as shown in the figure ¾ in
below. The center-to-center distance of the bolts in the
direction of loading is 4 in. The edge distances are 1.5 in. and W
1.5 in
2.0 in. as shown in the figure below. Steel material is A992.
2 in 4 in

For W 8*13 the gross yielding strength = 173 kips, and net
section fracture strength=140 kips
For W 8*13 the gross yielding strength = 173 kips, and net
section fracture strength=140 kips
Shear lag factor, U, is assumed 0.75 for W shape due to
flange have bolts less than three thus alternative values of
Table D3.3 not applicable.

AISC page 5-66 (PDF page 72)

Go to the Table 5.1 of AISC manual, with Pu=100 and Ag =

2.96 and select W 8*10, AISC page 5-13 (PDF page 740)
 39

2 in 4 in
1.5 in

1.5 in

2 in 4 in
7. TENSION RODS 40

Rods with a circular cross section are commonly used as tension members when slenderness is not consideration. Tension rods
might be referred to as hanger rods or sag rods. Hangers are tension members that are hung from one member to support
other members. Sag rods are often provided to prevent a member from deflecting (or sagging) under its own self weight.
Tension rods are also commonly used as diagonal bracing in combination with a clevis and turnbuckle to support lateral loads.

The more commonly used threaded rods is a

rod where the nominal diameter is greater
than the root diameter. The tensile capacity is
based on the available cross-sectional area at
the root where the threaded portion of the rod
is the thinnest.
The AISC specification does not limit the size of tension rods, but the practical minimum diameter of the rod should not 41
be less than 5⁄8 in. since smaller diameter rods are more susceptible to damage during construction.
The design strength of a tension rod is given in the AISC specification as :

The Fu term in the above equations is the

minimum tensile stress of the threaded rod.
There are several acceptable grades of
threaded rods that are available in AISCM , the
most common of which are summarized in
Table above.

Example 9: A threaded rod is to be used as a

bracing member that must resist a service
tensile load 2of 2 kips dead load and 6 kips live
load. What size rod is required if A 36 steel is
used?
 42
COMPRESSION
MEMBERS
❑ 1. INTRODUCTION
❑ 2. COLUMN BUCKLING
❑ 3. INELASTIC BUCKLING OF COLUMNS
❑ 4. AISC SPECIFICATIONS FOR COLUMN STRENGTH
❑ 5. LOCAL STABILITY OF COLUMNS (LOCAL BUCKLING)
❑ 6. AISC TABLES FOR COMPRESSION MEMBERS
❑ 7. ANALYSIS PROCEDURE FOR COMPRESSION MEMBERS
❑ 8. DESIGN OF COLUMNS
❑ 9. DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF COLUMNS IN FRAMES
❑ 10. DESIGN OF COLUMN BASE PLATES
1. INTRODUCTION 43
Compression Members are Structural elements that are subjected to axial
compressive forces only, that is, the loads are applied along a longitudinal axis
through the centroid of the member.
The most common type of compression member in building and bridges is the Column in Building
column. Column is a vertical member whose primary function is to support
vertical loads. In many cases these members are also resist bending, and in these
cases the member is a beam column. Smaller compression members not
classified as column are sometimes referred as struts or posts. Thus Compression
members are found as:
❑ Columns in buildings
❑ Trusses ( Top chords)
❑ Bracing members …. etc Truss
The stress in the compression member
cross-section can be calculated as:
where, f is assumed to be uniform over the entire cross-section. This ideal state is
never reached. The stress-state will be non-uniform due to:
1. Accidental eccentricity of loading with respect to the centroid
2. Member out of –straightness (crookedness), or
3. Residual stresses in the member cross-section due to fabrication processes. Bracing

Accidental eccentricity and member out-of-straightness can cause bending moments in the member. However, these are
secondary and are usually ignored. Residual stressed due to uneven cooling of standard sections after hot-rolling, and also
welding, can adversely affect the resistance of columns against buckling. As an example, in an I-section, the outer tips of the
flanges and the middle portion of the web cool more quickly than the relatively thick portions at the intersection of the flanges
and the web. The result of this uneven cooling is that the areas cooled more quickly develop residual compressive stresses,
while the areas cooled more slowly develop residual tensile stresses. The magnitude of the residual stresses can be as large as
10–15 ksi. Bending moments cannot be neglected if they are acting on the member. Members with axial compression and
bending moment are called beam-columns.
Compression and tension members differ in the following ways: 44
1. Slender compression members can buckle.
2. In tension members, bolt holes reduce the effective cross-sectional area for carrying the loads. In compression members,
however, the bolts tend to fill the holes and the entire area of the cross section is normally assumed to resist the loads.
Common shapes used for columns
In structural steel, the common shapes used for columns are wide flange shapes, round and square hollow structural sections
(HSS), and built-up sections. For truss members, double- or single-angle shapes are used, as well as round and square HSS and
WT-shapes
2. COLUMN BUCKLING 45
Consider the two axially loaded members shown in Figure. In Figure, the column
is short enough that the failure mode is by compression crushing. This is called a
short column. For the longer column shown in Figure, the failure mode is
buckling at the midspan of the member. This is called a slender, or long, column.
Intermediate columns fail by a combination of buckling and yielding.
Buckling occurs when a straight column subjected to axial compression suddenly
undergoes bending.
Consider a long slender compression member. If an axial load P is applied and
increased slowly, it will ultimately reach a value Pe that will cause buckling of the
column. Pe is called the critical buckling load of the column or Euler critical load.
The critical buckling load Pe for columns is theoretically given by Equation (2)

where,
Pe = Elastic critical buckling load (Euler load), lb.,
I = moment of inertia about axis of buckling
K = effective length factor based on end boundary conditions
L = Length of the column between brace points, in.
NOTE: the critical buckling load given by Eq. (2) is independent of the
strength of the material (say, Fy, the yield stress).
KL is the distance between the points of zero moment, or inflection
points. The length KL is known as the effective length of the column. The
dimensionless coefficient K is called the effective length factor.
Effective length factors are given in Table C-C 2.2 by the AISC manual
AISC page Comm. 240 (PDF page 1717) as following.
It is convenient to rewrite Equation (2), and Knowing
that I = Ar2 as

Where
A = is the cross sectional area, r = is the radius of
gyration with respect to the axis of buckling KL/r = is the
slenderness ratio and is the measure of a member's
slenderness, with large values corresponding to slender
members.
If the critical load is divided by the cross-sectional area,
the critical buckling stress or Euler elastic critical
buckling Fe is obtained:

If the column is not restricted to bend in a particular

plane, it will buckle in a plane perpendicular to the
minor axis of the cross section. Hence, the moment of
inertia and the radius of gyration in equations 2 to 4 are
with respect to the minor axis of the cross section and
the minimum moment of inertia and minimum radius
of gyration of the cross section should be used in these
equations. Minor axis buckling usually governs for all
doubly symmetric cross-sections. However, for some
46
cases, major (x) axis buckling can govern. Major axis
means axis about which it has greater moment of
inertia (Ix > Iy)
47