Introduction

• Steel is commonly used as a construction century.

Material over Steel proved to be strong enough against
compression as well as tension.
• Being a versatile member used as steel girders, industrial
buildings, water tanks, steel trusses, columns, towers,
Gantry girders, chimney, railway bridges etc.
• Though costly steel is widely used and known for speedy
construction. It has several advantages as well as
disadvantages.
• It is available in various grades and different steel
sections for design of steel structure properties of steel
and characteristics of steel need to be studied.
 Advantages of steel as construction
material
(i)High Strength: Steel posses high strength .The strength /weight ratio
of steel is about 3.5times more then the normally used concrete
materials .
(ii) Ductility: Ductility is the property of the material to undergo
excessive deformation without significance loss of strength and
stiffness. The main advantage of this property is that when a
structure is subjected to over load, the large deflection gives the
prior warning of impending failure. Ductility also provides a way of
energy dissipation which helps in reducing damage due to
earthquake and blast.
(iii) Prefabrication :(Speedy construction) (Quality assurance) steel
parts are manufactured at factory under strict supervision and
quality control due to which there is very less variation in material
properties. Then the sections can be transported and erected at site.
This results in speedy construction saving in time and expenses,
ensuring the quality of finished structures.
iv) Uniformity :The quality of steel intensive construction is
invariably superior when compared with that of construction
involving other material
(v) Veracity: Steel is a versatile material, can be rolled into wide
variety of shapes. It can also built up using any available,
different members together by simple
vi) Lighter construction: Steel is a construction material with high
strength as well as good ductility. Hence it is possible to
design lighter members with steel. This proves advantages to
develop earthquake resisting structures.
vii) Demountability : (recycle, reuse)The steel structures can be
disassembled and reuse where ever required. Further when it
cannot be reused it can be recycled easily reducing the
wastage.
 Disadvantages
(i) Frequent maintenance: Steel is susceptible to corrosion when
exposed to air and water. It needs periodic painting to prevent
corrosion. It also needs protection against fire. Though
structural steel members are incombustible they loose their
strength rapidly during fire.
(ii) Requirement of skill labours :Skill labours are required while
workshop fabrication, transportation and assembling.
(iii) Strict supervision : While assembling proper care has to be
taken. Joints are the weakest links in the structure. Stronger the
connection, stronger is the structure. Strict supervision is
required to take care of strength of joints.
(iv) Aesthetic appearance: As compared to concrete structure
aesthetically steel structures do not give pleasing appearance.
(v) Costly material: The cost of steel structures in many cases,
works out to be more than the concrete structures.
 Steel Structure can be Classified as

• Simple or multistoried structure

• Load bearing structure or cable stayed or
Cantilever structure
• Rigid ,Semi rigid or the connected frame
structure
• Single span or multi span structure
 Steel Tower
Since many years only steel
tower are used to serve many
functions. Towers may be of
different types such as
lightening towers, power
transmission towers,
observation towers, windmill
towers, radar towers. Towers
may be self supporting or
cable stayed. Most towers are
made of steel angle or tubes
in the form of triangles which
are bolted at site. Function:
To support transmission lines,
radar equipments, tanks,
bridge girders.
 Roof Trusses

• A truss is defined as a framed structure

composed of straight members connected to
each other at their ends so that the members
generally form triangle.
• Triangle Is most ideal frame structure. Large
column free areas are required for auditoriums,
assembly halls workshops etc.
• To get such column free area, one of the
commonly used roofing system is to provide a set
of steel root trusses, interconnected with purlins
which in term supports Gl or AC sheet
• Function: To provide cover to the structure.
 Steel water tanks
• For storage of water, oil or
any other liquids and gases
steel water tanks are
preferred. Due to huge
storing capacity and
versatility of shape, steel
tanks are used widely.
• They may be rectangular,
circular or spherical, with
flat bottom or spherical
bottom (with ring
beams).They may rest on
the ground or be elevated
on a staging structure.
 Steel Bridges
• Steel bridges are widely
used all over the world as
bridges on highways to
cross rivers and valleys or
railway lines even over
sea and for railway.
• Pedestal bridges are often
steel bridges. Bridges may
be classified as truss, plate
girder, arch, cantilever,
cable stayed or suspension
(using cables or rods as
principle load carrying
members).
 Steel columns
• A vertical member in a structure which is subjected to
a compressive force along its axis is called as column.
• Compression member in the roof truss is called struts
and in framed building it is called as strut. Strength of
the column depends upon its end fixity. End fixity
vary from huge to fully rigid, depending upon end
conditions.
• If columns suffers moments it has to be design
accordingly. Such column is known as beam column.
Shape of column decides it radius of gyration.
• Radius of gyration also influences load carrying
capacity of member
• Function: To provide support to beams and slabs.
 Steel Chimney
• Used for emission of foul gases from industry
 Building Frames
• The building frame is three dimensional skeleton system.
Following are the component members of steel buildings.
Beam are flexural members: Beams are used because they give
Flat floors and roofs. This requires less fabrication at site. The
section of beam is same throughout. Therefore its overall
efficiency is less.
• Tension members: Members which are subjected to direct
axial forces and which elongate under the action or tensile
forces are called as the tension members. They can be used as
component of trusses, hangers and cables for floors or roofs in
bracing system as rod. Stress throughout the member is
uniform hence it gives 100% efficiency.
• Compression member: The members which are subjected to
compressive loads and which tend to decrease in their lengths
are called as compression members. Such members are resists
vertical compressive load. In building structure they are called
as column, posts in trusses and for bridge, piers. Load and
moments are transferred it from each floor. 100%efficiency is
achieved due to phenomenon of buckling.
• Torsion Member : These members are often encountered as
shaft in spandrel beams of steel structure .
Combinations
1)Compressive and bending
2)Tension along with bending
3)Compression ,bending and torsion
Section used in steel design
Section used in steel design
I-section

• ISJB Indian Standard Junior Beam

• ISWB Indian Standard Wide Flange
Beam
• ISMB Indian Standard Medium
Weight Beam
• ISLB Indian Standard Light Weight
Beam
Channel /C-section

• ISJB Indian Standard Junior Beam

• ISWB Indian Standard Wide Flange
Beam
• ISMB Indian Standard Medium
Weight Beam
• ISLB Indian Standard Light Weight
Beam
T section

• ISNT Indian Standard Normal Tee Bar

• ISWT Indian Standard Wide Flange Tee Bar
• ISST Indian Standard Long Legged Tee Bar
• ISDT Indian Standard Deep Legged Tee Bar
• ISMT Indian Standard Medium Weight Tee Bar
• ISLT Indian Standard Light Tee Bar
• ISJT Indian Standard Junior Tee Bar
Angle Section

• ISA a)Indian Standerd equal angle section

 Choice of selection
• Cross section area of secton
• Section modules (To resist bending and shear)
• Radius of Gyration (To provide rigidity
toward)
• Ease of connection
 Typical Stress Strain Curve for Mild Steel

• OA –Elastic Range CD-Plastic range

• A-Limit of Proportionality D- Utimate Strength
• B-Upper yield point E-Fracture
• C-Lower yield point
• When steel is curved, it is important to keep the
stress-strain curve ratio for mild steel in mind. Below
is a stress-strain graph that reviews the properties of
steel in detail.
• If tensile force is applied to a steel bar, it will have
some elongation. If the force is small enough, the
ratio of the stress and strain will remain proportional.
• This can be seen in the graph as a straight line
between zero and point A – also called the limit of
proportionality.
• If the force is greater, the material will experience
elastic deformation, but the ratio of stress and strain
will not be proportional. This is between points A and
B, known as the elastic limit.
• Beyond the elastic limit, the mild steel will
experience plastic deformation. This starts the yield
point – or the rolling point – which is point B, or the
upper yield point.
• As seen in the graph, from this point on the
correlation between the stress and strain is no longer
on a straight trajectory.
• It curves from point C (lower yield point), to D
(maximum ultimate stress)
• ending at E (fracture stress).
 Grade of Steel and Strength Characteristics

• Grades of Steel and Strength Characteristic Steel can

be known as its characteristic strength, ultimate
tensile stressful, maximum % elongation several IS
codes classify steels and grade them based on
different parameter according to their purpose of use.
• IS 2062 grades structural steel as follows based on
ultimate tensile strength on primary basis and %
elongation.
• Fe-Steel
• Number (410)=Characteristic ultimate tensile strength in
Mpa
• A=at normal temp.
• B=up to 0 °c C=up to -40 °c W= wieldable material
 Accepted Valves of for mild steel

• Fy-Yield stress i.e 250Mpa

• Fu-Ultimate stress i.e 410Mpa
• Ɛy=0.0012
• Ɛst=0.0015
• E=2x10^5N/mm²

• NOTE - Strength Characteristics

IS 800-2007 Table no-1
Types of load coming on steel structure According
to IS 875-1987 Part I to IV
Load can be classified in many ways
▪ Natural loads
▪ Manmade loads
Or
▪ Permanent action
▪ Variable load
▪ Accidental load
 Types of Loads on Structures and
Buildings

Types of loads acting on a structure

are:
▪ Dead loads
▪ Imposed loads
▪ Wind loads
▪ Snow loads
▪ Earthquake loads
▪ Special loads
 Dead loads (IS 875:1987 Part I)
• Dead loads are permanent or stationary loads which are
transferred to structure throughout the life span. Dead
load is primarily due to self weight of structural members,
permanent partition walls, fixed permanent equipments
and weight of different materials.
• It majorly consists of the weight of roofs, beams, walls
and column etc. which are otherwise the permanent parts
of the building.
• The calculation of dead loads of each structure are
calculated by the volume of each section and multiplied
with the unit weight. Unit weights of some of the
common materials are presented in table below.
Dead loads
Unit weights of some of the materials
Live loads (IS 875:1987 Part II)
 Live loads (IS 875:1987 Part II)
• Live loads are either movable or moving loads with
out any acceleration or impact. These loads are
assumed to be produced by the intended use or
occupancy of the building including weights of
movable partitions or furniture etc.
• Live loads keeps on changing from time to time.
These loads are to be suitably assumed by the
designer. It is one of the major load in the design. The
minimum values of live loads to be assumed are
given in IS 875 (part 2)–1987. It depends upon the
intended use of the building.
Live loads (IS 875:1987 Part II)
 Wind loads (IS 875:1987 Part III)
• Wind load is primarily horizontal load caused by the
movement of air relative to earth. Wind load is
required to be considered in structural design
especially when the heath of the building exceeds two
times the dimensions transverse to the exposed wind
surface
• The horizontal forces exerted by the components of
winds is to be kept in mind while designing is the
building. The calculation of wind loads depends on
the two factors, namely velocity of wind and size of
the building. Complete details of calculating wind
load on structures are given below (by the IS-875
(Part 3) -1987).
Wind loads
 Snow loads (IS 875:1987 Part IV)

• Snow loads constitute to the vertical loads in

the building. But these types of loads are
considered only in the snow fall places. The IS
875 (part 4) – 1987 deals with snow loads on
roofs of the building.
• Snow load are to be considered in a
mountainous (Himalaya)region in the Northern
part of India
 Seismic /Earthquake load
• Earthquake forces constitute to both vertical and
horizontal forces on the building. The total vibration
caused by earthquake may be resolved into three
mutually perpendicular directions, usually taken as
vertical and two horizontal directions.
• The movement in vertical direction do not cause
forces in superstructure to any significant extent.
But the horizontal movement of the building at the
time of earthquake is to be considered while
designing.
• IS 1893-2002 Split into 5 Parts. Define Earth quick
load
Earthquake load
 Design of Structure
Objective of design of structure
▪ Safety
▪ Serviceability
▪ Durability
▪ Economy
▪ Asthmatic
 Factors Considered in designing of
steel Structure
▪ Stability
▪ Strength
▪ Brittle Failure
▪ Fire resistance
▪ Durability
 Design philosophies/Methods of
Design
▪ Working Stress Method(WSM)/
Allowable Stress Design (ASD)
▪ Ultimate Load Method (ULM)
▪ Limit State Method(LSM)
 Working Stress Method(WSM)
• This method of design was the oldest one. It is
based on the elastic theory and assumes that
both steel and concrete and elastic and obey
Hook’s law. It means that the stress is directly
proportional to strain up to the point of
collapse. Based on the elastic theory, and
assuming that the bond between steel and
concrete is perfect, permissible stresses of the
materials are obtained. The basis of this
method is that the permissible stresses are not
exceeded any where in the structure when it is
subjected to worst combination of working
loads.
 Drawbacks of the working stress method
❖ The main drawbacks of the working stress method of design are as
follows :
❖ It assumes that concrete is elastic which is not true as the concrete
behaves in elastically even on low level of stresses.
❖ It uses factors of safety for stresses only and not for loads. Hence, this
method does not give true margin of safety with respect to loads
because we do not know the failure load.
❖ It does not use any factor of safety with respect to loads. It means,
there is no provision for the uncertainties associated with the
estimation of loads.
❖ It does not account for shrinkage and creep which are time dependent
and plastic in nature.
❖ This method gives uneconomical sections.
❖ It pays no attention to the conditions that arise at the time of collapse.
The working stress method is very simple and reliable but as per IS
456:2000 the working stress method is to be used only if it is not
possible to use limit state method of design. Working stress method is
the basic method and its knowledge is essential for understanding the
concepts of design.
 Working Stress Method(WSM)
There are several methods of design among
which following two methods are discussed.
WSM = Working stress method.
LSM = Limit state method.
• This traditional method basically assumes that
the structural material stressed within elastic
limit hence adequate safety is ensured against
working loads.
• Permissible stress =Yield stress/Factor of
safety
 Shortcoming of WSM
❖ The main assumption of linear elastic behavior is not true.
❖ The implied assumption that stresses can be kept within
the permissible stresses is not realistic.
❖ It is observed that after elastic limit in the post buckled
state; steel components have ability to tolerate high elastic
stress by yielding locally and redistributing the loads.
WSM do not consider this nonlinear behavior while
designing.
❖ It proves safe but uneconomical.
❖ In WSM there is Uncertainty of many factors that
influence safety, serviceability and economy.
 Limit State Method(LSM)
❖This is the most rational method which takes into
account the ultimate strength of the structure and also
the serviceability requirements. It is a judicious
combination of working stress and ultimate load
methods of design. The acceptable limits of safety and
serviceability requirements before failure occurs is
called a limit state. This method is based on the concept
of safety at ultimate loads (ultimate load method) and
serviceability at working loads (working stress
method). The two important limit states to be
considered in design are :
❖Limit state of collapse.
❖ Limit state of serviceability.
 Limit State Method(LSM)
• Limit state design method is technologically sound
method which results in significant economy in design of
structures. It ensures structural safety and fulfills the
purpose for which it is built.
• The structure may become unfit for use not only when it
collapses but also when it violates the serviceability
requirements of deflations, vibrations, cracks due to
fatigue, corrosion and fire.
• In this method of design various limiting conditions are
fixed to consider a structure as fit.
• In its life span structure should not exceed these limiting
conditions and satisfy safety and serviceability condition,
This method is based on probabilistic approach
 Meaning and Definitions
• Limit state design method is based on
probability that maximum load and minimum
strength will not occur at same time in the life
span of a structure.
• Limit state is a state of impending failure,
beyond which a structure is unable to perform
its intended function satisfactorily.
Definition : The design. of a structure to satisfy
all appropriate requirements derived from
probability considerations is referred to as a
limit state design
Types of limit state method
 Limit state of Strength
It is associated with failure under the action of probable and most
unfavorable combination of loads on the structure using the
appropriate partial safety factors which may endanger the safety
of life and property. The limit state of strength includes.
❖ Loss of equilibrium of the structure as a whole or any of its parts
or components.
❖ Loss of stability of the structure including the effect of Sway,
overturning and sliding.
❖ Failure due to fatigue where structure is subjected to significant
fluctuation of stresses.
❖ Failure of structure due to excessive deformation, rapture of
the structure or any of its parts or components.
❖ Brittle failure.
This limit state method takes care of failure of structure occurs due
to excessive loading beyond the capacity of member. This type of
failure occurs due to unfavorable combination of loads on the
structure.
 Limit state of serviceability
❖Following points are to be considered for Limit State
of Serviceability.
❖Deformation within limits is acceptable. If it exceeds
certain limits it will cause disturbance and discomfort
from the point of view of safety though structure
maybe safe. Excessive deformation may also cause
damage to finishes and non structural members.
❖The functional effectiveness is at stake due to
vibrations in the structure. This causes discomfort to
people and may damage the structure or its
components.
❖Fatigue cause cracks and damage to the structure.
❖Structure may expose to extreme weather
conditions which may cause loss of
durability and corrosion may take place
due to it.
❖Even good quality steel loses its strength
rapidly when fire catches. IS800:2007 has
given provisions to take measure against
fire
 Partial Safety Factor(ɣ)
• Limit state method is based on probabilistic
approach. In this method load and strength,
two principal design factors are treated
separately.
• As load and material safety are not function of
each other hence different safety factors are
recommended. As the two safety factors
contributed to the safety partially, they are
called as partial safety factors.
• IS 800 2007 recommended value of partial
safety factors for load and strength in table 4 &
5.
 Partial Safety Factor for Load(ɣf)
• Due to uncertainties involved in the analysis,
design and construction to achieve safety in
worst possible condition, code has specified
taking design action(design load) as partial
safety factors times the characteristic actions.
• The partial safety factors suggested by code
for limit state of strength and serviceability
differ. The partial safety factor for load are
given in table Design load to be find out as,
• Design load =ɣf x Characteristic load

Qd =ɣf x Q
Qd =design load
Ɣf= partial safety factor for load
Q = characteristic load/ service load/working
load
Table no 4 Page no 29 IS 800
 Partial safety Factors for Material
Strength(ɣm)
The material strength achieved is uncertain. The following
uncertainties should be accounted
❖Uncertainty in deviation of material strength from
characteristic value.
❖Possibility of strength reduction due to fabrication and
tolerances.
❖Possibility of unfavorable variation in size of members.
Hence IS 800 2007, recommends reduction in the strength
of materials by partial safety factor which can be find
out as,
• Design strength =Ultimate strength /ɣm

Sd=su/ɣm
• Sd=design sthenth
• Su Ultimate sthrength
=

• Ɣm=Partial safty factor for material

Table no 5 Page no 30 IS 800