Topics to be Covered

• Structures
• Structure Analysis
• Structural Elements
• Structural types
• Loads
• Structural Model Idealization
• Support Connection
• Idealized Structure
• Principle of Superposition
• Equations of Equilibrium
• Determinacy & Stability
 What is Structure?

A structure refers to a system of connected parts used to support

a load.
• The primary function of a structure is to receive loads at some
specific points and safely transfer it to some other points.
• Important examples related to civil engineering include
buildings, bridges, and towers.
 What is Structure?

• structures are composed of one or more solid elements arranged

so that the whole structures as well as their components are
capable of holding themselves without appreciable geometric
change during loading and unloading.

• In other branches of engineering, ship and aircraft frames,

tanks, pressure vessels, mechanical systems, and electrical
supporting structures are important.
 What is Structure?
• In case of a building structure can be defined as Combinations
of members that takes load transfer from one member to
anther and finally to ground safely.

Girder

Beams

Columns

Steel Building
 What is Structure?

• Bridges
 What is Structural Analysis?
The prediction of the performance of a structure under
prescribed loads and/or other external effects.

The performance characteristics are:

• Stresses i.e. axial force, shear force and bending
moment
• Deflections
• Support Reactions
OR
 What is Structural Analysis?

The determination of internal actions and deformations of a

structure is called Structural Analysis.

Structural Analysis

Internal Actions Deformations

-Flexural Stresses -Translation
-Shear Stresses -Rotations
-Axial Stresses
-Torsional Stresses
 What is Structural Design?

Knowing the expected loads and span lengths of the members,

finding the required material properties and cross-sectional
dimensions is called Design of Structure.
 Structural Elements

The parts of which a structure is composed are called Structural

elements.
Some of the more common elements from which structures are
composed are as follows.
• Tie Rods
• Beams
• Struts
• Columns & Beam Columns
 Structural Elements
 Tie Rods
• Structural members subjected to a tensile force are often referred
to as tie rods or bracing struts.

• Due to the nature of this load, these members are rather slender,
and are often chosen from rods, bars, angles, or channels.
 Structural Elements
 Beams

Beams are usually straight horizontal members used primarily to

carry vertical/transverse loads.
Beams are primarily designed to resist Bending Moment and
Shear Force.

Beams can made of Steel , Concrete , Reinforced Concrete or

Timber.
 Structural Elements
 Struts
A strut is a structural element designed to resist axial
compression.

A strut may be horizontal, vertical or inclined.

A vertical strut is also called column.

 Structural Elements
 Columns and Beam Columns:
Members that are generally vertical and resist axial compressive
loads are referred to as columns. Columns are Vertical struts .

columns subjected to both an axial load and a bending moment

as shown in the figure. These members are referred to as beam

columns.
 Classification of Structures

On the basis of geometry structures are classified in to following

types.

• Skeletal Structures

• Surface Structures

• Solid Structures
 Classification of Structures
 Skeletal Structures
Those structures in which the Cross Sectional dimensions of
members are less as compared to its length are called Skeletal
Structures.

Skeletal structures Can be idealized to a series of straight or curved

lines.

Beams, Columns, Frames, Trusses , Cables & Arches are the

example of skeletal structures.
 Classification of Structures
 Surface Structures

Those structures where two dimensions ( length and width) are

greater than its third one (thickness) are called surface structures.

Surface structures can be idealized to a straight or curved surfaces.

Surface structures may be flexible (membrane) or rigid (shells).

Walls, Shells , Domes & Slabs are the example of surface

structures.
 Classification of Structures
 Solid Structures
All the reaming structures are Solid Structures.

Those structures in which all the three dimensions are larger are
called Solid Structures.

Dams, Retaining walls etc are the examples of solid structures.

 Forms/Types of Structures

Structural Forms

Cables Arches Frames Trusses Beams

Surfaces

Membranes Plates Shells

 Forms/Types of Structures
Cables:
Cables are usually flexible and carry their loads in tension.

Cables stretch well and are light, so they are useful in large
span structures.

Cable is flexible and in-extensible; hence does not resist any

bending moment or shear force; same as truss bar.

Cable is in-extensible, hence the length is always constant.

 Forms/Types of Structures
Cables are mostly used in long span bridges.

Suspension Bridge Cable Stayed Bridge

 Forms/Types of Structures
Hanger Tower

Cable

Cable
Anchorage Road Way

Golden Gate Bridge, San Francisco

 Forms/Types of Structures
Arches:
The arch achieves its strength in compression, since it has a reverse
curvature to that of the cable.
An arch must also resist bending and shear depending upon how it is
loaded & shaped (an ideal arch will have no secondary effects).

Chinese Moon Bridge

 Forms/Types of Structures
Types of arches

indeterminate indeterminate

indeterminate
determinate
 Forms/Types of Structures
Frames:
• Frames are often used in buildings and are composed of beams and
columns that are either pin or fixed connected.
• Frames can be extend in two (plane frames) or three dimensions
(space frames).
• The loading on a frame causes
bending of its members, and if
it has rigid joint connections.
Forms/Types of Structures

Frame members are subjected to internal

axial, shear, and moment loadings.
 Forms/Types of Structures
Truss:
A truss is a structure comprising one or more triangular units
constructed with straight slender members joined together at
their end points.
When the span of a structure is required to be large and its depth is
not an important criterion for design, a truss may be selected.
 Forms/Types of Structures
Truss:
A plane truss (Coplanar truss) is one where all the members
and joints lie within a 2-dimensional plane and are frequently
used for bridge and roof support, while a space truss has
members and joints extending into 3 dimensions and are
suitable for derricks and towers.
 Forms/Types of Structures
Truss:
Due to the geometric arrangement of its members, loads that
cause the entire truss to bend are converted into tensile or
compressive forces in the members.
Because of this, one of the primary advantages of a truss,
compared to a beam, is that it uses less material to support a
given load.
 Forms/Types of Structures
Types of Coplanar Trusses:
The following are the types of coplanar trusses
• Simple truss
• Compound truss
• Complex truss

Assumptions in Truss Analysis:

• All members are assumed in axial compression or tension.
• Members are joined with the help of frictionless pins.
• Loads are applied at joints only.
 Forms/Types of Structures
Applications of Trusses:
Trusses are used to support roofs and bridges.

Roof Truss
Forms/Types of Structures

Bridge Truss
 Forms/Types of Structures
Beam:
A beam is a structural element that carries load primarily in
bending (flexure).
Beams generally carry vertical or transverse gravitational forces but
can also be used to carry horizontal loads (i.e. loads due to an
earthquake or wind).
The loads carried by a beam are transferred to columns, walls, or
girders, which then transfer the force to adjacent structural
compression members.
 Forms/Types of Structures
Types of Beams on the basis of support:

Name of the beam?

 Forms/Types of Structures
Types of Beams on the basis of Material:
1. Concrete beams
Concrete beams generally have rectangular cross sections, since it is
easy to construct this form directly in the field. Because concrete is
rather weak in resisting tension, steel “reinforcing rods” are cast into
the beam within regions of the cross section subjected to tension.
 Forms/Types of Structures
Types of Beams on the basis of Material:
2. Steel or Aluminum beams
When the material used for a beam is a metal such as steel or
aluminum, the cross section is most efficient when it is shaped as
Wide flange.
 Forms/Types of Structures
Types of Beams on the basis of Material:
2. Timber beams
Beams made from timber may be sawn from a solid piece of wood or
laminated. Laminated beams are constructed from solid sections of
wood, which are fastened together using high-strength glues.
 Forms/Types of Structures
Types of Beams on the basis of Material:
4. Precast Concrete beams:
Precast concrete beams or girders are fabricated at a shop or yard in
the same manner and then transported to the job site.
 Forms/Types of Structures
Surface structures:
The surface structures are classified in to the following types.
• Membranes
• Plates
• Shells
 Forms/Types of Structures
Membranes:
• These are thin sheets of material
• Resist applied loads by tension.
• This is a two dimensional cable.
Examples are tents, sails, balloons etc

Note: A two dimensional Arch is called a Dome.

 Forms/Types of Structures
Plates:
Plates are flat surfaces that transfer loads by bending in a manner
similar to beams.
 Forms/Types of Structures
Shells:
Shell is rigid surface that transfers loads in two directions.
The primary difference between a plate and a shell is that the
shell has curvature whereas the plate does not.
 Loads
Factors which when act on any structure will produce internal
actions and deformations. The loads on a structures are determined
after finding the structural dimensions.

The loads define the type of structure to be constructed.

Once the structural form has been decided, the actual design begins.

The design of structure starts with those elements which are

subjected first to the primary loads.

For example, first the slabs are designed then beams, then columns
and then footing.
Loads are specified in: General Building Codes& Design Codes
 Loads
The objective of a structural engineer is to design a structure that
will be able to withstand all the loads to which it is subjected
while serving its intended purpose throughout its intended life
span.
 Loads
Types of Loads:

Loads Loads

Dynamic
Static Loads Dead Live
Loads
 Loads
Types of Loads:
• Dead Loads
• Live Loads
• Blast Loads
• Wind Loads
• Earthquake Loads
• Hydrostatic and Soil Pressure
• Other Natural Loads
 Structural Model Idealization
Support Connection
1) Roller Support
One Degree of Restrain i.e in vertical direction perpendicular to plane

Ө ≠ 0 ( Rotational Displacement can occur)

∆h≠ 0 (Horizontal displacement can occur)

∆v= 0 (Vertical displacement can not occur)

Fy

Fy
 Structural Model Idealization
Support Connection
2) Hinge Support/Pin Connection
Two Degree of Restrain i.e in Horizontal and in Vertical direction
perpendicular to plane

Ө ≠ 0 ( Rotational Displacement can occur)

∆h= 0 (Horizontal displacement cannot occur)

∆v= 0 (Vertical displacement cannot occur)

Fx

Fy Fx
Fy
 Structural Model Idealization
Support Connection
2) Pin connection
A pin connection confines deflection; allows rotation
 Structural Model Idealization
Support Connection
3) Fixed Support
Three Degree of Restrain i.e in Horizontal, in Vertical direction perpendicular to
plane

Ө = 0 ( Rotational Displacement cannot occur)

∆h= 0 (Horizontal displacement cannot occur)

∆v= 0 (Vertical displacement cannot occur)

M
Fx
M F
x

Fy
Fy
 Structural Model Idealization
Support Connection
3) Fixed Support
 Structural Model Idealization
Support Connection
 Structural Model Idealization
Support Connection
 Structural Model Idealization
Support Connection
 Structural Model Idealization
Idealized Structures
A complex structure may be idealized as a line drawing where
orientation of members and type of connections are assumed.
 Structural Model Idealization
Idealized Structures
A complex structure may be idealized as a line drawing where
orientation of members and type of connections are assumed.
 Structural Model Idealization
Idealized Structures
A complex structure may be idealized as a line drawing where
orientation of members and type of connections are assumed.
 Principle of Superposition
Principle of Superposition
• The total displacement or internal loadings (stress) at a point in a
structure subjected to several external loadings can be determined
by adding together the displacements or internal loadings (stress)
caused by each of the external loads acting separately.

• For this statement to be valid it is necessary that a linear

relationship exist among the loads, stresses, and displacements.

= +

68
 Principle of Superposition
 Two requirements must be imposed for the principle of
superposition to apply:

1. The material must behave in a linear-elastic manner, so that

Hooke’s law is valid, and therefore the load will be
proportional to displacement.

2. The geometry of the structure must not undergo significant

change when the loads are applied, i.e., small displacement
theory applies.

Throughout this course, these two requirements will be satisfied.

69
 Equations of Equilibrium

The structure or its member is in equilibrium when it maintains

a balance of force and moment.

F 0
x F y 0 F z 0
M  0 x M y 0 M z 0

The principal load-carrying portions of most structures lie in a

single plane, and since the loads are also coplanar, the above
requirements for equilibrium then reduces to

F  0
x

F  0
y

M  0
 Equations of Equilibrium
• In order to apply these equations, we first must draw a free–body
diagram (FBD) of the structure or its members.
• If the body is isolated from its supports, all forces and moments
acting on the body are included.
• If internal loadings are desired, the method of sections is used.
• A FBD of the cut section is used to isolate internal loadings.
• In general, internal loadings consist of an axial force, a shear
force, and the bending moment.
 Equations of Equilibrium
Coplanar system of forces
 Determinacy

When all the forces in a structure can be determined from the

equilibrium equations, the structure is referred to as statically
determinate.

When the unknown forces in a structure are more than the

available equilibrium equations, that structure is known as
statically indeterminate.
 Determinacy
As a general rule, a structure can be identified as being either
statically determinate or statically indeterminate by drawing free-
body diagrams of all its members, or selective parts of its members,
and then comparing the total number of unknown reactive force and
moment components with the total number of available equilibrium
equations. For a coplanar structure there are at most three
equilibrium equations for each part.

If there is a total of n parts and r force and moment reaction

components, we have
r = 3n statically determinate
r > 3n statically indeterminate
 Determinacy
• In particular, if a structure is statically indeterminate, the
additional equations needed to solve for the unknown reactions
are obtained by relating the applied loads and reactions to the
displacement or slope at different points on the structure.
• These equations, which are referred to as compatibility
equations, must be equal in number to the degree of
indeterminacy of the structure.
• Compatibility equations involve the geometric and physical
properties of the structure.
 Determinacy
Example:

Example:
 Determinacy
Example:

Example:
 Determinacy
Example:

Example:
 Determinacy
Example:

Example:
 Determinacy
Example:
 Determinacy
Example:
 Determinacy
Example:
 Stability
A structure which is capable of resisting loads are called stable
structures.
To ensure the equilibrium of a structure or its members, it is not
only necessary to satisfy the equations of equilibrium, but the
members must also be properly held or constrained by their
supports.

Two situations may occur where the conditions for proper

constraint have not been met.

1) Partial Constraints
2) Improper Constraints. Note:
 Stability
Partial Constraints:
• In some cases a structure or one of its members may have
fewer reactive forces than equations of equilibrium that must
be satisfied.
• The structure then becomes only partially constrained as shown
in figure
• Here the equation will not be satisfied for the loading
conditions and therefore the member will be unstable

Free Body diagram

 Stability
Improper Constraints:
• In some cases there may be as many unknown forces as there
are equations of equilibrium; however, instability or movement
of a structure or its members can develop because of improper
constraining by the supports.

• This can occur if all the support reactions are concurrent at a

point, the summation of moments about point O will not be
equal to zero thus rotation about point O will take place.
 Stability
Improper Constraints.
• Another way in which improper constraining leads to
instability occurs when the reactive forces are all parallel.

• Here when an inclined force P is applied, the summation of

forces in the horizontal direction will not equal zero.

• Here the equation will not be satisfied for the loading

conditions and therefore the member will be unstable
 Stability
Example:

Example:
 Stability
Example:

Example:
 Statically Indeterminate Structures
When the unknown forces in a structure are more than the
available equilibrium equations, that structure is known as
statically indeterminate.

Most of the structures designed today are statically indeterminate.

This indeterminacy may be due to the added supports or

members, or by the general form of the structure.

For example, reinforced concrete buildings are almost always

statically indeterminate.
 Advantages of SI Structures
Followings are the advantages of making a structure statically
indeterminate

1. Smaller Stresses
 Advantages of SI Structures
2. Greater Stiffness
 Advantages of SI Structures
3. Redundancies
A simply supported beam is a determinate structure so it has no
redundant actions.
A fixed beam is indeterminate by 2 degrees so it has two redundant
actions.

Yielding will initiate at mid span due to maximum moment at mid

span with no Redistribution of load
 Advantages of SI Structures
3. Redundancies

Yielding will initiate at supports due to maximum moment at supports

 Advantages of SI Structures
3. Redundancies

Redistribution of load to mid span after yielding of section at supports

 Disadvantages of SI Structures
Followings are the advantages of making a structure statically
indeterminate

1. Stress due to Support Settlement

2. Stress due to Temperature Changes and Fabrication Errors
 References

• Structural Analysis by R. C. Hibbeler

• Online Civil Engineering blogs