MANUFACTURING

Introduction to manufacturing
Technology – the application of science to provide society and its members with those things that or
desired.

• Affects our daily lives.

• Economically manufacturing provides material wealth (about 12% of US GDP)

What is manufacturing?
➢ Latin: manus (hand) and factus (make); used to mean made by hand
➢ Most modern manufacturing is accomplished by automated, and computer-controlled
machinery
➢ Technologic: manufacturing is the application of physical and chemical processes to alter the
geometry, properties and/or appearance of a given starting material to make parts of
products. Also includes the assembly of many parts to make products. It is almost always
carried out as a sequence of operations.
➢ Economic: transformation of materials to items of greater value by means of one or more
processes and/or assembly operations. Manufacturing adds value to a material by changing
its properties.

Manufacturing industries and products

➢ Industry: consists of enterprises and organizations that produce goods and provide services
➢ Primary industry: cultivate and exploit natural resources.
➢ Secondary industries: take the outputs of primary industries and convert them into consumer
and capital goods – manufacturing is a principal activity in this category, although construction
and power tools are also included.
➢ Tertiary industry: constitute the service sector of the economy.

Manufactured products
Consumer goods: products purchased directly by consumers.
Capital goods: those purchased by companies to produce goods and/or provide services
Discrete items – individual parts and assembled products rather than items produced by continuous
processes.

Production quantity and product variety

Categories:
➢ Low production – quantities between 1 – 100 units a year
➢ Medium production – quantities between 100 – 10 000 units per year
➢ High productions – 10000 to millions of products per year
Boundaries between categories are arbitrary – may shift by order of magnitude
product variety – different product types or designs produced

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 Soft product variety: then there are only small
differences among products, such as the differences
among car models made on the same production line
Hard product variety occurs when products differ
substantially and there are only a few common parts;
like a car and a truck

Manufacturing capability
➢ Manufacturing capability consists of a set of processes and systems designed to transform a
certain limited range of materials into products of increased value.
➢ The 3 building blocks- materials, processes, and systems – constitute the subject of modern
manufacturing.
➢ Manufacturing capabilities: refers to the scope of technical and physical capabilities and
limitations of a manufacturing company and each of its plants.
o It has 3 dimensions:
1. Technological processing capability
2. Physical size and weight
3. Production capacity

Technological processing capability

Technological process capability of a plant – its available set of manufacturing processes
- Some plants preform machining operations and others roll steel billets into sheet stocks – they
cannot perform other tasks than that they were designed to.
- Certain manufacturing processes are suited for certain materials. By using certain materials in
certain processes, we specialize
- Companies must focus on the design and manufacture of products that are compatible with
their technological processing capability.

Physical product limitations

- A plant is given a certain set of limitations in terms of size and weight that could be
accommodated by manufacturing processes.
- The production and material handling equipment must be planned for products that lie within a
certain range.

Production capacity
- A limitation on a plant’s manufacturing capability is the production quantity that could be
produced in each time period.
- Production capacity – maximum rate of production output that a plant can achieve under
assumed operating conditions.
o Number of shifts per week
o Hours per shift
o Direct labor manning levels
o Etc.
- Plant capacity is usually measured in terms of output units (tons of steel produced).

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Manufacturing materials

Composites – nonhomogeneous mixtures of the other three basic types rather than a unique category

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Metals
- Usually alloys.
- Alloys can be ferrous or nonferrous.
- Ferrous metals
o Based on iron
o Commercially most important – ¾ of the metal tonnage throughout the world
o Pure iron has a limited commercial use, but when alloyed with carbon it has a greater
commercial value than any other value – forms steel and cast iron.
o Steel – iron-carbon alloy containing 0.02-2.11% carbon.
▪ most important category within the ferrous metal group
▪ its composition often includes other alloying elements, as well to enhance
properties of the metal
• Manganese, chromium, nickel and molybdenum
▪ Application
• Construction, transportation and consumer products
o Cast iron – an alloy of iron and carbon (2%- 4%) used in casting. Silicon is also
present in the alloy (0.5-3%)
▪ Other elements are also usually added to obtain desirable properties in the
cast part.
▪ Application:
• Blocks and heads for internal combustion engines.
- Nonferrous metals
o Other metallic elements and their alloys
o In almost all cases commercially alloys are more important than pure metals.

Ceramics
- Compounds contain metallic and non-metallic elements.
o Non-metallic (typically) – oxygen, nitrogen and carbon
o Traditional ceramics:
▪ Clay – a lot available, consisting of fine particles hydrous aluminum silicates
and other minerals used in making bricks, tile and pottery.
▪ Silica – the bases of nearly all glass products
▪ Alumina – used in grinding.
▪ Silicon carbide – used in grinding.
o Modern ceramics:
▪ Alumina, whose properties are enhanced in various way through modern
processing methods.
▪ Carbides – metal carbides such as tungsten carbide and titanium carbide
which are widely used as cutting tool materials.
▪ Nitride – metal and semimetal nitrides such as titanium nitride and boron
nitrides are used as cutting tools and grinding abrasives.
▪ Crystalline ceramics are formed in various ways from powders and then
heated to a temperature below melting point to achieve boning between the
powders.
▪ Glass ceramics can be melted and cast, and then formed in processes such as
traditional glass blowing

Polymers
▪ A compound form of repeating structural units called mers, whose atoms share electrons to
form very large molecules.
▪ Usually consists of carbon plus one or more other elements such as hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen
or chlorine.

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 1. Thermoplastic polymers
▪ Can be subjected to multiple heating and cooling cycles without substantially
altering the molecular structure of the polymer.
▪ Common thermoplastics – polyethylene, polystyrene, polyvinylchloride, and nylon
2. Thermosetting polymers
▪ They chemically transform into a rigid structure upon cooling from a heated plastic
condition.
▪ Common thermosetting polymers – phenolics, amino resins and epoxies
▪ Some of these polymers cure by mechanisms rather than heating.
3. Elastomers
▪ Polymers that exhibit significant elastic behavior
▪ Common elastomers – natural rubber, neoprene, silicone and polyurethane

Composites
• Not really a separate category of materials – mixture of other types
• Consists of two or more phases that are processed separately and then bonded together to
achieve properties superior to those of its constituents
• The term phase – homogeneous mass of material, such as an aggregation of grains of identical
unit cell structure in a solid metal
• Usual structure – particles or fibers of one phase mixed into a second phase, called the matrix
• Can be found in nature or be produced synthetically.
o Synthesized type is of greater interest, includes glass fibers in a polymer matrix, such
as fiber reinforced plastic, polymer fibers of one type in a matrix of a second
polymer, such as an epoxy Kevlar -composite; and ceramic in a metal matrix, such as
tungsten carbide in a cobalt binder to form a cemented carbide
• Properties depends on its components.

Manufacturing process
Manufacturing process – a designed procedure that result in physical and or chemical changes to a
starting work material with intention of increasing the value of that material

- Usually carried out as a unit operation

Unit operation – a single step in the sequence of steps required to transform the starting product into
the final product
2 basic types of manufacturing operations:
1. Processing operation
o Transforms work material from one state of operation to a more advanced state that
is closer to the final desired product
o It adds value by changing properties, geometry and appearance of the material
o In general, its preformed on discrete work parts, but in certain operations it is also
applicable to assembled items
2. An assembly operation
o Joins two or more components to create a new entity (assembly)

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Processing operations
- Processing operation uses energy to alter a work of a part’s shape, physical properties, or
appearance to add value to the material
- Forms of energy
o Mechanical
o Thermal
o Electrical
o Chemical
o Human energy – usually employed to control the machines, oversee the operations,
and load or unload parts before and after each cycle of operations
- Most production operations produce scrap, either as a natural aspect of the operation or in
occasional defective products
o It is important to reduce the waste in either of these forms
- More than one processing operations is usually required to transform the starting material into
the final form
- The operations are performed in a specific sequence to achieve a required geometry and
condition defined by the design specification

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Categories of processing operations
1. Shaping operations
o to alter the geometry of the starting work material by various methods
o Common shaping processes: casting, forging, machining
o Classification is based on the state of the starting material
o Solidification processes:
▪ Starting material is a heated liquid or semifluid that cools
and solidifies to form the part geometry
▪ Materials in their fluid or semifluid state is poured or
farced into a mold cavity and allowed to solidify; thus,
taking the shape of the mold cavity
• Casting for metals and molding for plastics

o Particulate processing:
▪ The starting material is a powder, and the powders are
formed and heated into the desired geometry
▪ Common technique in powder metallurgy: pressing and
sintering
• The powders are first squeezed into a die cavity
under high pressure and then heated to bond the
individual particles together

o Deformation processes:
▪ Starting material is a ductile solid that is deformed to
shape the part
▪ Starting work part is shaped by the application of forces
that exceed the yield strength of the material
▪ To increase ductility the work material is often heated
before forming to a temperature below the melting point

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 ▪ Deformation processes are associated most closely with
metalworking and include operations such as forging and
extrusion

▪ Sheet metalworking
• Involves bending, forming, and shearing
operations performed on starting blanks and
strips of sheet metal
o Material removal processes:
▪ The starting material is a solid, from which the material is
removed so that the resulting part has a desired
geometry
▪ Most important processes in this category: machining
operations such as drilling, turning and milling which are
most commonly applied to solid metals (uses cutting tools
that are harder and stronger than work metals)
o Net shape processes: manufacturing processes that transform nearly all
of the starting material into product and require no subsequent machining
to achieve the final part geometry
o Near net shape processes: require minimum machining

2. Property enhancing operations

o Improve physical properties without changing the products shape
o Heat treatment is the most common example
o Contains various annealing and strengthening procedures for
metals and glasses
o Sintering of powder metals is also a heat treatment that
strengthens a pressed powder metal work part
o Its counterpart in ceramics is firing

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 3. Surface processing operations
o Preformed to clean, treat, coat, and deposit material onto the exterior
surface of the work
o Cleaning – both chemical and mechanical processes to remove dirt , oil
and other contaminants from the surface
o Surface treatments – mechanical working such as shot peening and sand
blasting and physical working such as diffusion and ion implantation
o Coating and thin film deposition – the processes apply a thin coating of a
material to the exterior surface of the work part
o Commonly includes electroplating, anodizing of aluminum, organic
coating and porcelain enameling.
o Thin deposition processes include physical vapor deposition and
chemical vapor deposition to form extremely thin coatings of
various substances

Assembly operations
- Two or more separate parts are joined to form a new entity
- Permanent joining processes:
o Welding, brazing, soldering, and adhesive bonding
o They form a bond between components that cannot (easily) be disconnected
o Mechanical assembly techniques: rivets, press fitting, expansion fits
- Semi permanently joining processes
o Certain mechanical joining methods are available to fasten together two parts in a
joint that can be conveniently disconnected
o Screws, bolts and other threaded fasteners

Production machines and tooling

- Extensive use of machinery begun in the Industrial Revolution
- Machine tools – power-driven machines used to operate cutting tools previously operated by
hand
- Difference between the machine tools in the industrial revolution and now?
o The power is electrical rather than steam or water
o The level of precision and automation is much greater
- Machine tool is seen as the mother of all machinery
o Used to make consumer products, but also other components for other production
machines
- Can have a general use or be specified:
o Presses – stamping operations
o Forge hammers – forging
o Rolling mills – rolling sheet metals
o Welding machines – welding
o Placement machines – assembling electronic components to printed circuit boards
o General purpose equipment – more flexible and adaptable to a variety of jobs
- Dominate reason for special purpose equipment:
o Usually designed to produce a specific part or product in very large quantities – to
achieve high efficiencies in short cycles of times
- Other possible reason:
o Process is unique and not commercially available
- Tooling that customizes equipment:
o General purpose equipment these “customizable” equipment is made to be
exchanged
▪ When a job is done for a piece of equipment it can be traded for another
part best suited for the next part of the process

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 o In specialized machinery the equipment may never need to be exchanged except if it
was worn out and needed to be replaced

Production systems

✓ Production systems consist of people, equipment, and procedures designed for the combination
of materials and processes that constitute a firm’s manufacturing operations
✓ It can be divided in to 2 categories:

1. Production facilities
Consists of the factory and the production, material handling, and other equipment in the factory
✓ plant layout – the way the equipment is arranged in the factory
o it is usually organized in logical groupings – manufacturing systems
o Automated production lines, or a machine cell consisting of an industrial robot and
machine tool
✓ A manufacturing company attempts to design its manufacturing systems and organize its
factories to serve a particular mission for each plant in the most efficient way
Low quantity production

- 1-100 units a year

- The term job shop is usually used to describe this type of production facility
- Products are typically specialized and complex – prototype aircraft and special machinery
- Equipment in a job shop is usually general and the work force is highly skilled
- Job shop must be designed to be highly flexible to deal with wide variety in product
- Fixed position job lay out – workers and processing equipment are usually brought to the
product, rather than moving the product (in actual practice big products like ships and aircraft
is made in parts in various locations and assembled in one place using large capacity cranes)
- Process layout – individual components of large products is made in various factories in which
the equipment is arranged according to function/ type
o Different parts usually each require a different operation sequence and is therefore
routed through the departments in the particular order needed for processing, usually
in batches
o Disadvantage of process layout – the machinery and methods to produce a part are
not designed for efficiency

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Medium quantity manufacturing

- (100 – 10 000 units annually)

- Two different categories:
o When product variety is hard: batch production
▪ A batch is made, after which the manufacturing equipment is changed over to
produce a batch of the next product, and so on.
▪ The production rate is greater than the demand rate of any single product
type, and so the same equipment can be shared among multiple products
▪ The changeover between batches takes time which accounts for lost production
time – a disadvantage of batch production
▪ Batch production is usually ideal for “made to stock “ situations, in which items
are manufactured to replenish inventory that has gradually been depleted by
demand
o When product variety is soft: extensive changeovers between one product style and
the next may not be necessary
▪ It is often possible to configure the manufacturing system so that groups of
similar products can be made on the same equipment without significant loss in
time because of set up
▪ The processing of different parts or products are accomplished in cells
consisting different workstations or machines – the term cellular manufacturing
is often used
• Each cell is used to produce a limited variety of part configurations;
that is, the cell specializes in the production of a given set of similar
parts , according to the principals of group technology
• The layout is called a cellular layout
High production

- 10,000 – millions of units per year

- Mass production
o High demand rate for products
o Manufacturing systems are dedicated to the production of a single item
o 2 categories of mass production
1. Quantity production
✓ Involves the mass production of single parts on single equipment
✓ Typically involves standard machines equip with special tooling in the effect of
dedicating the equipment to the production of one part type
✓ Typical layouts used: process layout or cellular layout
2. Flow line production
✓ Involves multiple pieces of equipment or workstations arranged in sequence, and work
unites are physically moved through the sequence to complete the product
✓ Product layout – the workstations are equipped and designed specifically for the
product to maximize efficiency
o Workstations are organized in one line or in a series of connected lines
o The work is usually moved between segments with a mechanical conveyor
o At each section only a small amount of work is done to create the final
product
✓ Single – model production line – every product is identical
✓ Mixed model production line – applies to a situation where there is a soft variety in
the products on the assembly line
o For marketing purposes it’s better to give consumers a choice to choose form

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 3. Manufacturing support systems
- The people and procedures by which a company manages its production operations
✓ Functions accomplished by manufacturing support systems
o Operate factories efficiently
o Plan and control production orders
o Satisfy product quantity requirements
o Design the processes and equipment
✓ Different departments in manufacturing support systems:
1. Manufacturing engineering
o Responsible for planning the manufacturing processes – deciding which processes must
be used to make parts and assemble products
o Also involved in designing and ordering the machine tools and other equipment used
by the operating departments to accomplish processing and assembly
2. Production planning and control
o Responsible for solving the logistics problem in manufacturing
▪ Ordering materials and purchased parts, scheduling production, and making
sure the operating departments have the necessary capacity to meet the
production schedules
3. Quality control
o Producing top quality products should be the main priority of any firm
o This effort is the responsibility of the quality control department

Manufacturing economics
Production cycle time analysis
- The time it takes to make a product is one of the components that determines the total cost of
the products
- The time that a production takes is the sum of the individual cycle times of the unit cycle
operations needed to manufacture the product
o The cycle time of a unit operation: the time that one work unit spends being processed
or assembled
- A typical production cycle = actual processing time + work handling time + time to change the
machinery’s tools

𝑇𝐶 = 𝑇0 + 𝑇ℎ + 𝑇𝑡
The time needed to create a batch

Tb = Tsu + QTc
- Tb = total time needed to complete the batch
- Tsu = set up time
- Q = batch quantity
- Tc = cycle time (min/pc)
Average production time per piece
Tsu Tsu + QTc Tb
Tb = + Tc = =
Q Q Q
- In mass production Q → ∞

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Average hourly production rate
60
𝑅𝑝 =
𝑇𝑝

During the production run, the production rate is reciprocal of the cycle time
60
𝑅𝑐 =
𝑇𝑐
- Rc = hourly cycle rate
- These equations indicate that the cycle rate will always be larger than the actual production
rate unless the set-up time is 0

Manufacturing cost models

Cost model for production cost per piece

𝐶𝑝𝑐 = 𝐶𝑚 + 𝐶𝑜 𝑇𝑝 + 𝐶𝑡

- Cpc = cost per piece

- Cm= starting material cost
- Co = cost rate of operation the work cell
- Tp = average production rate per piece
- Ct = cost of tooling used in the unit operation (actual cost of tooling / number of piece
produced)
𝐶𝑂 = 𝐶𝐿 + 𝐶𝑒𝑞

- Cl = cost rate of labour

- No = number of unit operations in the manufacturing sequence for the part or product
- ‘i = the costs and times associated with each operation
Labour cost rate
𝑅𝐻
𝐶𝐿 = (1 + 𝑅𝐿𝑂𝐻 )
60
- RH – workers hourly wage rate
- RLOH – labour overhead rate
Equipment cost rate
𝐼𝐶
𝐶𝑒𝑞 = (1 + 𝑅𝑂𝐻 )
60𝑁𝐻
- IC – initial cost of equipment
- N- anticipated years of service
- H – annual number of hours of operation
- Roh – applicable overhead rate of equipment

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Scrap rate
𝑄
𝑄0 =
1−𝑞
Qo- starting quantity
Q – required quantity of parts often produced to compensate for losses due to scrap
q – the scrap rate

Overhead costs
- All expenses of operating the company other than material, labour and equipment
- It can be divided into 2 categories
o Factory overhead
▪ Consists of the costs of running the factory excluding the materials, direct
labour and equipment
▪ This includes plant supervision, maintenance, insurance, heat and lights, ect.
▪ A worker can be paid a loan of 15 $, but when overhead are taken into
account the worker could potentially cost the company 30$
o Corporate overhead
▪ The company expenses not related to the factory,
▪ This includes : sales, marketing , accounting, legal, engineering , research and
development, office space, utilities, and health benefits
• The are required in a company but not directly related to
manufacturing

Equipment cost rate

- A fixed cost ( it remains constant for any level of production output )
- It is a capital investment that is made in the hope that it will pay for itself by producing a
revenue stream that ultimately exceeds its cost
o The company puts up the money to purchase as an initial cost and then the equipment
pays back over a certain number of years until its replaced or disposed of
- Direct labour and material costs if variable – they are paid as their used

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METAL-CASTING PROCESSES
Sand casting
- Most widely used casting process
o nearly all casting alloys can be sand cast
o this is one of the few materials that can be used with metals with high melting temps
▪ steels, nickels and titaniums
o versatility accounts for different shapes and sizes in products as well as the quantity of
the produced products or parts
- consists of pouring molten metal into a sand mould, allowing the metal to solidify and then
breaking up the mold to remove the casting
- the casting must be cleaned and inspected, and the heat treatment is sometimes required to
improve metallurgical properties
- pattern by separating the mold into two halves
- the mold also has a gating and riser system
- if the casting is to have internal systems, a core must be included in the mold
- a new mold must be made for each part produced

Patterns and cores

- sand casting requires a pattern – a full sized model of the part, enlarged to account for
shrinkage and machining allowances in the final casting
- materials used to create patterns: (depends on the quantity of castings you want to make)
o wood
▪ easily shaped , but it teds to warp and is abraded by the compressed sand
around it and can therefore only be used a limited amount of time
o plastics
▪ compromise between wood and metal
o metals
▪ more expensive to make, but last much longer
- types of patterns:
o solid pattern
▪ same geometry as the casting, adjusted in size for shrinkage and machining
▪ easiest pattern to fabricate, but not easiest to use in making a sand mold
▪ the problem: determining the centre line for the two halves and incorporating
the gating system and sprue into the mold is left to the judgement and skill of
the foundry worker
▪ therefore their usually limited to very low production quantities

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 o split patterns
▪ consist of 2 pieces, dividing the part along a plane coinciding with the parting
line of the mold
▪ split patterns are appropriate for complex part geometries and moderate
production quantities
▪ the parting line of the mold is predetermined by the two pattern halves rather
than operating judgement
o match-plate patterns
▪ 2 pieces of the split pattern are attached to opposite sides of a wood or
metal plate
▪ Holes in the plate allows the top and bottom sections of the mold to be
aligned accurately
▪ For higher production quantities
o Cope and drag pattern
▪ Similar to match-plate patterns except that the split pattern halves are
attached to two separate plates, so that the cope and drag sections of the
mold can be fabricated separately, instead of using the same pattern for
both
- Patterns define the external shape of the part being made, but the internal surfaces are
formed using a core
o A core is a full-scale model of the interior surfaces of the part
o It is inserted into the mould cavity prior to pouring so that the molten metal will flow
and solidify between the mold cavity and the core
o Usually made of sand compacted into a desired shape
o The size must compensate for shrinkage and machining
o Chaplets – supports to hold the core in position and is made of a metal with a higher
melting temperature than the casting metal
o On pouring and solidification, the chaplets become bonded into castings

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Molds and mold-making
- Foundry sands: silica or silica mixed with other materials
o It should possess good properties like withstanding high temperatures without melting
or otherwise degrading
o Other important features: grain size, distribution of grain size in the mixture, and
shape of individual grains
▪ Small grain size: provides better surface finish on the cast part
▪ Large grain size : more permeable ( to allow escape of gasses during
pouring)
▪ Irregular shape of grains: tend to make stronger molds because of
interlocking, but interlocking tends to restrict permeability
- When making molds:
o Grains of sands are held together by a mixture of water and bonding clay
o A typical mixture is 90% sand, 3% water and 7% clay
o Other bonding agents can be used in the place of clay, including organic resins and
inorganic binders
o Besides sand and binder, additives are combined with the mixture to enhance
properties
o To form the mold cavity: compact molding sand around the pattern for both cope and
drag in a container called a flask
▪ Packing performed by various methods
▪ Most common is hand ramming, but can be done by machines
• 1st case by machine: squeeze sand around the pattern by pneumatic
pressure
• 2nd case: jolting action in which the sand, contained in the flask with a
pattern, is dropped repeatedly in order to pack it into place
• 3rd case: slinging action in which the sand grains are impacted against
the pattern at a high speed
o Flaskless molding
▪ One master flask is used in a mechanized system of mold production
▪ each sand mold is produced using the same master flask
▪ mold production rates of up to 600/hr are claimed for this automated method
o indicators to identify the quality of the sand mold:
1. strength – molds ability to maintain its shape and resist erosion caused by
the flow of molten metal. (Depends on grain shape, adessive qualities of
the binder and other factors
2. permeability – capacity of a mold to allow hot air and gasses from the
casting operation to pass through the voids in the sand
3. thermal stability – ability of the sand at the surface of the mold cavity to
resist cracking upon contact with the molten metal
4. collapsibility – ability of the mold to give way and allow the casting to
shrink without cracking the casting; the ability to remove the sand from the
casting during cleaning
5. reusability – can the sand from the broken mold be reused to make other
molds
- green sand molds
o made of a mixture of sand, clay and water
o green refers to the fact that the mold contains moisture at the time of pouring
o posses sufficient strength for most applications, good collapsibility, good
permeability, good reusability, and are the least expensive of the molds
o most widely used molds

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 o moisture in the sand can cause defects in some castings, depending on the metal
and geometry of the part
- dry sand molds
o made using organic binders, rather than clay
o molds are baked in large ovens at temp. ranging from 200 C to 320 C
▪ oven baking strengthens the mold and hardens the cavity surface
o provides better dimensional control in the cast products, compared to green sand
molds
o more expensive and production rate reduced because of baking time ; they are
limited to medium to large castings in low to medium production rates
- skin dried molds
o the benefits of a dry sand mold is partially achieved by drying the surface of a
green sand mold to the depth of 15-25 mm at the mold cavity, surface using
torches, heating lamps, or other means
o special bonding materials must be added to the sand mixture to strengthen the
cavity surface
- chemically bonded molds
o these no bake systems include furan resins (consisting of furfural alcohol, urea, and
formaldehyde), phenolics, and alkyd oils
o they are growing in popularity due to good dimensional control and high
production applications

casting operation
- casting is performed when the core is positioned, and the two halves of the mold is
clamped together
- casting consists of pouring, solidification, and cooling of the cast part
- the gating and riser system in the mold must be designed to deliver liquid metal into the
cavity and provide for a sufficient reservoir of molten metal during solidification shrinkage

air and gasses must be allowed to escape

- one hazard during pouring: the buoyancy of the molten metal will displace the core
o Archimedes’s principal: the force tending to lift the core is equal to the weight of
the displaced liquid is less than the weight of the core itself
o 𝐹𝑏 = 𝑊𝑚 − 𝑊𝑐
o Fb – the buoyancy force, Wm -weight of molten metal displaced, Wc- weight of
the core
o Density of a sand core is approximately 1.6 g/𝑐𝑚3
- Following the solidification and cooling: the sand mold is broken away form the casting to
retrieve the part
- The part is then cleaned, gating and riser systems are separated, the sand removed.
- The casting is then inspected

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Other expendable-mold casting processes
Shell molding
- The mold is a thin shell
o Typically 9mm, made of sand and held together by a thermosetting resin binder
- Developed in Germany in 1940’s
- Advantages
o Surface is smoother than a conventional green sand mold
▪ permits easier flow of molten metal during pouring and better surface
finish after final casting
▪ finishes of 2,5 micrometres can be obtained
o good dimensional accuracy is also achieved with tolerance of +-0,25 mm possible
on medium or small parts
o good finish and accuracy usually mean that extra machining isn’t required
o collapsibility of the mold is generally sufficient to avoid tearing and cracking of
the casting
- disadvantages
o More expensive metal pattern than the corresponding pattern for the green sand
molding
▪ Makes it difficult to justify for small quantities of parts
▪ Very economical in large quantities (can be mechanized)
▪ Particularly suitable for steel castings less than 9kg

Expanded polystyrene process

- Uses a mold of sand packed around a polystyrene foam pattern that vaporizes when
molten metal is poured into the mold
o Other names and variations: lost-foam process, lost pattern process, evaporative
foam process and full mold process
- The foam pattern includes the sprue, risers and gating system

19 | P a g e
 o It may also include internal cores, thus eliminating the need for a separate core in
the mold
- Since the foam pattern becomes a cavity in the mold, draft and parting lines can be
ignored
- The mold does not have to be opened into cope and drag sections
- For a one-of-a-kind casting
o Foam is manually cut from large strips and assembled to form a pattern
- Larger quantities
o Automated molding operation can be set up to mold the patterns prior to making
the molds for casting
- Pattern usually coated with a refractory compound to provide a smoother surface to
improve its high temperature resistance
- Dry sand is used in certain processes in this group, which aids recovery and reuse
- The pattern does not need to be removed from the mold
o Simplifies and expedites mold making
o All the steps ( cores prating lines, ect. ) is included in the pattern itself
- A new pattern needs to be produced every time, thus the production costs are largely
dependent on the cost of the pattern
- Best suited for large production scale

Investment casting
- A pattern made of wax is coated with a refractory material to make the mold, after which the
wax has melted away prior to pouring the molten metal
- Other meaning of the word invest – to cover completely
- Precision casting – able to make castings of high accuracy and intricate detail
- Also lost wax casting – pattern is lost prior to casting
- A separate pattern must be made for each casting
- Pattern-production is usually accomplished by a molding operation
o Pouring or injecting hot wax into a master die that has been designed with proper
allowances for shrinkage of box wax and metal castings
- When the geometry is complicated
o Separate wax pieces must be joined to make the pattern
- In high production operations
o Several patterns are attached to a sprue, also made of wax, to form a pattern tree
o The pattern tree is usually dipped into fine -grained silica or other refractory mixed
with plaster to bond the mold into shape

20 | P a g e
 o The final mold is accomplished by repeatedly dipping the mold into refractory slurry
or by gently packing the refractory around the tree in the container
o The mold is allowed to air dry for 8 hours to harden the binder
- Advantages
o Complicated parts can be cast
o Close dimensional control is achieved
o Good surface finish is possible
o Wax can usually be reused
o Additional machining usually not required
o All types of metals and other high temperature alloys can be investment casts
- Disadvantages
o Many steps = relatively expensive
o Normally small, although parts of up to 34kg have been cast

Plaster-mold and ceramic mold castings

- Similar to sand casting, but the mold is made out of plaster of Paris and not of sand
o Additives such as talc and silica flour are mixed with the plaster to control contraction
and setting time, reduce cracking and increase strength
o To make the mold
▪ The plaster mixture combined with water in poured over a plastic or metal
pattern in a flask and allowed to set
▪ Wood patterns are generally unsatisfactory due to the extended contact with
water in the plaster
• The fluid consistency allows the plaster mixture to flow around the
pattern capturing its details and finishes
• Thus the plaster mold is noted for these details
- Disadvantage
o the mold must be set for at least 20 minutes before the pattern is stripped
o the mold must be baked for several hours to reduce moisture, yet not all the moisture is
removed after baking
▪ mold strength is lost when mold becomes to dehydrated

21 | P a g e
 ▪ yet to much moisture can cause casting defects
o the plaster mold is not permeable
▪ problem can be solved by
• evacuating air from the mold cavity before pouring
• aerating the plaster slurry prior to mold making so that the resulting
hard plaster contains finely dispersed voids
• Antioch process:
o Use 50% sand mixed with plaster, heating the mold in an
autoclave and then drying
o Resulting mold is considerably more permeable
o Plaster molds cannot withstand the same high temperatures as sand molds
▪ Limit to casting lower melting point alloys
o Casting sizes range from 20g to more than 100kg, but parts weighing less than 10kg
are more common
- Advantages
o Good surface finish
o Dimensional accuracy
o The capability to make thin cross sections in the casting
o `
- Ceramic mold casting – similar to plaster mold casting, except the mold is made of refractory
ceramic materials that can withstand higher temperatures than plaster
o it can be used for casting steel, iron and other high temperature alloys
o applications are similar to those of plaster-mold casting except for the metal casts
o it also has the same advantages

Permanent mold casting processes

- reusable metal molds

basic permanent mold process

- uses a metal mold constructed of two sections that are designed for easy, precise opening and
closing
- molds are commonly made of steel or cast iron
- the cavity with a gating system included, is made into two halves to provide accurate
dimensions and good surface finish
- metals usually used in this purpose:
o aluminium
o magnesium
o coper-base alloys
o cast iron – however iron requires a high pouring temp (1250-1500 C) which takes a
heavy toll on mold life
- high pouring temperatures of steel makes permanent molds unsuitable for it, unless the mold is
made of refractory materials
- cores in the permanent molds are used to create an interior surface
o Can be made of metal, but either their shape must account for removal or it should be
collapsible
o Sand cores could be used – semi-permanent mold casting
- To make a basic permanent mold casting:
o The mold is first preheated and one or more coatings are sprayed on the cavity
▪ Preheating facilitates metal flow through the gating system and into the cavity
▪ The coatings aid in heat dissipation and lubricate the mold surfaces for easier
removal of the casting

22 | P a g e
 - Advantages
o Good surface finish
o Close dimensional control
o More rapid solidification = finer grain structure = stronger castings produced
o Mold cost is substantial = suited for high volume production and can be automated
accordingly
- Disadvantage
o Limited to metals with a lower melting point
o Only allows simple part castings relative to sand casting

Variations
Slush casting
- A hollow casting is formed by inverting the mold after partial freezing at the surface to drain
out the liquid metal in the centre
- Solidification begins at the mold walls (relatively cool) and progresses with time to the middle
- Thickness of the shell is controlled by the amount of time allowed before draining
- Used to make statues, lamp pedestals, toys, etc.
o Exterior is important, but interior geometry and strength are barely considered

Low pressure casting

- Liquid metal is forced into a cavity under low pressure (0.1 mPa) beneath so that the flow is
upward
- Reason: clean molten metal from the centre of the ladle is introduced into the mold, rather than
metal that has been exposed to air
o Gas porosity and oxidation defects are thereby minimized and mechanical properties
improved

23 | P a g e
Vacuum permanent mold casting
- Variation of low-pressure casting in which a vacuum is used to draw the molten metal into the
mold cavity
- Reduced air pressure is used to draw molten metal into the cavity rather than forcing it with
positive air pressure from below
o Air porosity and other related defects are reduced
o Greater strength is given to the cast product

24 | P a g e
Die casting
Permanent mold casting process in which molten metal is injected into the mold cavity under high
pressure (7-350MPa)

- The pressure is maintained during solidification, after which the mold is opened and the part
removed
- Molds in this process is called dies
- Most distinguishable quality: use of high pressure to force metal into die cavity
- Operations are carried out in die-casting machines
o Designed to hold and accurately close two halves of the mold and keep them closed
as the liquid metal is forced into the cavity
- Molds used are made of: tool steel, mold steel, margin steel ‘
o Tungsten and molybdenum with goof refractory skills are also used
- Can be single cavity or multiple cavity
- Ejector pins are required to remove the part from the die when it opens
o The pins pushes the part away from the mold surface so that it could be removed
o Lubricants must also be sprayed on the cavities so that the part could be removed
- Ventage holes and passageways must be built into the dies at the parting line to release air
and gasses in the cavity
- Flash is also common in die casting – the molten metal squeezes into the small space between
the halves in the parting line. It must be trimmed
- Advantages
o High production rates possible
o Economical for large production quantities
o Close tolerances possible (+- 0,075 mm) for small parts
o Good surface finish
o Thin sections possible (about 0,5mm)
o Rapid cooling provides small grain size and good strength for casting
- Limitations
o Shape restrictions – part geometry must allow for removal from the cavity
o The metals cast

- There are two types :

Hot chamber die casting

- Metal is melted in a container attached to a machine, and a pistol is used to inject the liquid
metal under high pressure into the die (7-35 MPa)
- Makes up to 500 parts per hour
- Limited in application to low-melt-point metals that does not chemically attack the plunger and
other chemical components
o Much of the injection system is submerged in the molten metal
- Metal include: zinc, tin, lead and magnesium

25 | P a g e
Cold chamber die casting
- Molten metal is poured into an unheated chamber from an external melting container and a
pistol is used to inject the metal under high pressure into the die (14-140 MPa)
- Compared to hot chamber, production rates are not that high
o Because of the need to ladle the liquid metal into the chamber from an external
source
o Still high production operation
- Typically used for aluminium, brass and magnesium alloys
o Zinc and tin can also be applicable in cold chamber, but hot chamber usually favours

26 | P a g e
Squeeze casting and semisolid metal casting
Squeeze casting
• Combination of casting and forging
o Molten metal is poured into a pre-heated lower die
o The upper die is closed to create a mold cavity after solidification begins
o (Not like other permanent mold castings in which the halves are closed prior to pouring
or injecting the molten metal)
• Hybrid process so other names include liquid metal forging
• The pressure applied by the upper die in squeeze casting causes the metal to completely fill
the cavity which causes a good surface finish and low shrinkage
• Required pressures are significantly less than forging of a solid metal billet and much finer
surface detail can be imparted by the die than in forging
• The process can be used for both ferrous and nonferrous alloys
• Automotive parts are a common application

Semi solid metal casting

• Family of net shaped or near net shaped processes performed on metal alloys at
temperatures between the liquid and solid phases
o The alloys is a mixture of solid and molten metals during casting (mushy state)
o To make it flow properly:
▪ Mixture must consist of solid metal globules in a liquid rather than a more
typical dendritic solid shapes that form during freezing of a molten metal
▪ This is achieved by forcefully stirring the slurry to prevent dendrite formation
and instead encourage the spherical shapes, which in turn reduces the viscosity
of the work metal
• Advantages
o Complex part geometries
o Thin walls in parts
o Close tolerances
o Zero or low porosity – high strength of the casting
• When applied to aluminium: the terms thixocasting or rheocasting are used
o Thixocasting
▪ Thixotropy – refers to viscosity of some fluid-like materials when agitated
▪ The starting work material is a pre-cast billet that has nondendritic moisture
▪ The work is heated into the semisolid temperature range and injected into a
mold cavity by a die-casting machine
▪ The work is heated into the semisolid temperature range and injected into a
mold cavity using die casting equipment
o rheocasting
▪ Rheology – the science that relates deformation and flow of materials
▪ Semisolid slurry is injected into the mold cavity by a die casting machine
▪ The difference between this technique and conventional die casting is that the
metal is at a temperature between the solid and liquid phase and not above
it
▪ The mushy mixture is agitated to prevent dendrite formation
• Thixomolding
▪ Semisolid metal casting when applied to magnesium
▪ Equipment used: equipment similar to an injection molding machine
▪ Magnesium granulates are fed into a barrel and propelled forward by a
rotating screw as they are heated into the semisolid temperature range

27 | P a g e
 ▪ The required globular from of the solid phase is accomplished by the mixing
action of the screw
▪ The slurry is then injected into the mold cavity by a linear forward movement
of the screw

Centrifugal casting
- Refers to various casting methods in which the mold is rotated a high speed so that the
centrifugal force distributes the molten metal to the outer regions of the die cavity
- The group is made of:

1. True centrifugal casting

- Molten metal is poured into a rotating mold to produce a tubular part
- Molten metal is poured into a horizontal rotating mold at one end (rotating can begin before
hand or after metal has been poured)
- The high speed rotation results in centrifugal forces that forces that metal to take the shape of
the mold cavity
o Thus the shape of the outside of the casting can be round or hexagonal or whatever
o But the inside of the casting will be perfectly round due to the radially symmetric
forces at work
- Orientation axis of the mold rotations can be either horizontal or vertical
- Parts made by true centrifugal casting is characterised by:
o High density especially in the outer regions where F is the greatest
o Solidification shrinkage at the exterior of the tube cast is not a factor – centrifugal
force continually reallocates molten metal towards the mold wall during freezing
o Any impurities in the casting tend to be on the inner wall and can be removed by
machining
- The centrifugal force can be defined by:

𝑚𝑣 2
𝐹=
𝑅
F -force
M – mass
V – velocity
The G-factor

- The ratio of the centrifugal force divided by its weight

28 | P a g e
 𝐹 𝑚𝑣 2 𝑣2
𝐺= = =
𝑊 𝑅𝑚𝑔 𝑅𝑔
w- m*g

g – 9,8𝑠/𝑚2
2𝜋𝑅𝑁 𝜋𝑅𝑁
𝑣= =
60 30
N = rotational speed
Rotational speed using the diameter:

30 2𝑔𝐺
𝑁= √
𝜋 𝐷

D – inside diameter of the mold(m)

➢ If the G-factor is to low in centrifugal casting, the liquid metal will not remain against the mold
wall during the upper half of the circular path, but will “rain” in the cavity
o G= 60 - 80 is appropriate for horizontal centrifugal casting, but it still depends on the
metal being cast
➢ Slipping occurs between the molten metal and the mold wall when the rotational speel of the
mold is less than what it should be
➢ In vertical centrifugal casting, the effect of gravity acting on the liquid metal causes the casting
wall to be thicker at the base, than on the top
o The inside then takes a parabolic shape
o This will show itself in the rotation speed as follows

30 2𝑔𝐿
𝑁= √ 2
𝜋 𝑅𝑡 − 𝑅𝑏2

L – vertical length of the casting

Rt – inside radius at the top of the casting (m)
Rb – inside radius at the bottom of the casting(m)

2. Semicentrifugal casting
➢ Centrifugal force is used to produce solid castings rather than tubular parts
➢ Rotation speeds are usually set so that the G -factor is around 15
➢ The molds are designed with risers to supply feed metal

29 | P a g e
 ➢ Density of the metal is the final casting is greater in the outer sections than at the centre of
rotation
➢ Usually used on parts where the centre is machined away (lowest quality of parts)

3. Centrifuge casting
- The mold is designed with part cavities located away from the axis of rotation, so that the
molten metal poured into the mold is distributed to these cavities by a centrifugal force
- The process is used for smaller parts, and radial symmetry of the part is not a requirement as
it is for the other two centrifugal casting methods

Foundry practice
- Heating and melting are accomplished in the furnace
- The section covers the various types of furnaces used in foundries and the pouring practices for
delivering molten metal from the furnace mold

Furnaces
- The types of furnaces most used:

1. Cupolas
o Vertical, cylindrical furnace equipped with a tapping spout near its base
o Used for melting cast irons
o A cupola consist of a large shell of steel plate lined with refractory
o The charge is loaded through a charging door located less than halfway up the height
of the cupola
▪ The charge: iron, coke, flux, and possible alloying elements
▪ Iron is usually a mixture of pig iron and scrap
▪ Coke is the fuel used to heat the furnace
▪ Forced air is introduced through the openings near the bottom of the shell for
combustion of the coke
▪ The flux is a basic compound such as limestone that reacts with coke ash and
other impurities to form slag ‘the slag serves to cover the melt, protecting it
from reaction with the environment inside the cupola and reducing heat loss
o As the mixture is heated, the iron melts
o The furnace is periodically tapped to provide liquid metal to pour

30 | P a g e
2. Direct fuel fired furnaces
o It contains a small open hearth, in which the metal charge is heated by fuel burners
located on the side of the furnace
o The roof of the furnace assists the heating action by reflecting the flame down against
the charge
o The typical fuel is natural gas and the combustion products exist the furnace through a
stack
o At the bottom of the hearth is a tap hole to release molten metal
o They are generally used in casting for melting nonferrous metals such as copper base
alloys and aluminium

3. Crucible furnaces
o The furnaces melt the metal without direct contact with a burning fuel mixture
o Sometimes called direct-fuel-fired furnaces
o The crucible
▪ Container made from refractory material or a high temperature steel alloy to
hold the charge
o Used for nonferrous metal such as brass, bronze and alloys of zinc and aluminium
o Typically limited to a couple hundred kilogram
o 3 types :
1. Lift-out type
• Crucible is placed in a furnace and heated sufficiently to melt the
metal charge
• Typical fuels: oil, gas or powdered coal
• When the metal is melted the crucible is lifted out of the furnace and
used as a pouring ladle
2. Stationary
• Heating furnace and pouring ladle as one unit
• The molten metal is ladled out of the container
3. Tilting
• Heating furnace and pouring ladle as one unit
• The assembly can be titled for pouring

31 | P a g e
4. Electric arc furnaces
- Charge is melted by heat generated from an electric arc
- Various configurations are available, with two or three electrodes
- Power consumption is high, but electric arc furnaces can be designed with high melting
capacity (23 000 – 45 000 kg/hr)
- Used primarily for casting steel

5.Induction furnaces
- Uses alternating current passing through a coil to develop a magnetic field in the metal, and
the resulting induced current causes rapid heating and melting of metal
- The electromagnetic field causes a mixing action to occur in the liquid metal
- Since the metal does not come in direct contact with the heating elements, the environment in
which melting takes place can be closely controlled
- The results are molten metals with hight quality and purity
- It can be used for nearly any casting alloy when these requirements are important

32 | P a g e
Pouring, cleaning and heat treatment
Ladles

- One of the main problems with pouring can be that oxidized molten metal can be introduced
into the mold
o It reduces product quality
o Filters are sometimes used to catch the impurities and fluxes are used to cover the
molten metal to retard oxidation
o Ladles have also been devised to pour molten metal from the bottom as impurities
accumulates on the top of the product
- Additional steps before product is ready:
o Trimming


o Removing the core
o Surface cleaning
o Inspection
o Repair if required step 1-5 = cleaning
o Heat treatment

- When these steps are required, they are labour intensive and expensive

33 | P a g e
Casting quality
Casting defects
Misruns:

- Castings that solidifies before completely filling the cavity

- Typical causes:
o Fluidity of molten metal is insufficient
o Pouring temperature is too low
o Pouring is done too slowly
o Cross section of the cavity is too thin
Cold shuts

- Two portions of the metal flow together but there is a lack of fusion between them from
premature freezing
- Causes :
o similar to those of a misrun
cold shots

- results from splattering during pouring causes solid globules to from that becomes entrapped
in the casting
- prevention
o pouring procedures and gating systems that avoid splattering
shrinkage cavity

- a depression is the surface or an internal void in the casting

- causes
o solidification shrinkage that restricts the amount of molten metal in the last region to
freeze
o often occurs near the top of the casting, in which case it is referred to as a pipe
- can be prevented by a proper riser design
microporosity
- network of small voids distributed throughout the casting
- causes
o localised solidification shrinkage of the final molten metal in the dendritic structure
o usually associated with alloys, because the protracted manner in which freezing occurs
in those metals
hot tearing/ hot cracking

- when the casting is restrained from contraction by an unyielding mold during the final stages
of solidification
- causes
o defect is manifested as a separation of metals at a point of high tensile stress caused
by a metal’s inability to shrink naturally
- prevention
o in sand casting and other expandable molds the problem is prevented by making the
mold collapsible
o in permanent mold presses it is reduced by removing a part from the mold
immediately after solidification
defects related to sand molds

34 | P a g e
- sand blow
o a balloon-shaped gas cavity caused by the release of mold gasses during pouring
o occurs at or below the casting surface near the op of the casting
o causes
▪ low permeability, poor venting, high moisture content
- pinholes
o caused by the release of gases during pouring
o consist of many gas cavities formed at or slightly below the surface of the casting
- sand wash
o irregularity in the surface of the casting that results from erosion of the sand mold
during pouring and the contour of the erosion is formed in the surface of the final cast
part
- scabs
o rough aeras on the surface of the casting due to encrustations of sand and metal
o cause
▪ portions of the mold surface flaking during solidification and becoming
imbedded in the casting surface
- penetration
o refers to a surface defect that occurs when the fluidity of the fluid metal is high and it
penetrates into the sand mold or sand core
o harder packing of the sand mold helps to elevate this condition
- mold shift
o caused by sidewise displacement of the mold cope relative to the drag, the result of
which is a step in the cast product at the parting line
- core shift
o similar to mold shift, it’s the core that is displaced
o the displacement is usually vertically
o core shift and mold shift is caused by the buoyancy of the molten metal
- mold crack
o occurs when the mold strength is insufficient, and a crack develops, into which liquid
metal can seep to form a “fin” in the final casting

35 | P a g e
Inspection methods
1. visual inspection to detect obvious defects like misruns
2. dimensional measurements to insure tolerances have been met
3. metallurgical, chemical, physical and other test to determine the quality of the product
a. pressure testing
b. radiographic methods
c. magnetic particle testing
d. fluorescent penetrations
e. supersonic testing
f. mechanical testing to determine the properties of the material
4. Salvage methods could be used if damages are not too bad

Castability and casting metals

- Castability – the ease with which a cast part can be produced
- It depends on
1. The cast designs
2. The metal used for casting
3. Proper selection of casting processes to economically satisfy production requirements

36 | P a g e
Ferrous casting
Cast iron
- Most important of all casting alloys
- Why? Tonnage of cast iron is several the times that of all other metals combined
- Types
o Grey cast iron
o Nodular iron
o White cast iron
o Malleable cast iron
o Alloy cast iron
- Typical pouring temperatures for cast iron : 1400 C, depending on the composition

Steel
- Has good mechanical properties
- Has the capability to create complex geometries
- However : great difficulties are faced by the foundry specializing in steel
o The melting point for steel is considerably higher than for most other metals that are
commonly cast
o Solidification range for low carbon steels begins at just below 1540 C and the
pouring temperature is about 1650 C
o At those high temperatures the steel is very chemically reactive
▪ It readily oxidizes
▪ Special procedures must be taken to keep the molten metal from contact with
air
o Molten steel has a relatively low fluidity – limits the design in thin sections in
components cast out of steel
- Advantages of steel
o Tensile strength is higher than most other casting metals (ranging upward from 410
MPa)
o Better toughness than most other casting alloys
o Isotropic – strength virtually the same in all directions
o Easy to weld – readily welded without significant loss in strength

Nonferrous casting alloys

- Aluminium alloys
o very castable
o melting point of pure aluminium is 660 C, thus pouring points for the metal is low
compared to cast iron or steel
o they are light weight
o they have a wide range of strength properties attainable through heat treatment
o easy to machine
- Magnesium alloys
o Lightest of all casting metals
o Corrosion resistant
o Good strength to weight and stiffness to weight ratios
- Copper alloys
o Includes bronze, brass and aluminium bronze
o Corrosion resistant
o Attractive appearance
o Good bearing qualities
o High cost
- Tin alloys

37 | P a g e
 o Lowest melting point of casting metals
o Generally easy to cast
o Good corrosion resistance
o Poor mechanical strength
- Zinc alloys
o Commonly used in die castings
o Low melting point
o good fluidity – highly castable
o low creep strength - can’t be exposed to high stress
- nickel alloys
o good strength
o corrosion resistant – suited for high temperature applications such as jet engines
o high melting point
o difficult to cast
- titanium alloys
o corrosion resistant
o possess high strength to weight ratios
o high melting point
o low fluidity
o tendency to oxidize at high temperatures
o difficult to cast

Product design considerations

- geometric simplicity
o simplifying a design will improve that product’s castability
▪ avoiding unnecessary complexities
▪ reduce need for cores
▪ improve strength of casting
- corners
o sharp corners and angles should be avoided
▪ sources of stress concentrations and may cause hot tearing and cracks in the
casting
▪ generous fillets should be designed on inside corners and sharp edges should
be blended
- section thickness
o thickness should be uniform to avoid shrinkage cavities
o thicker sections create hot spots in castings, because greater volume requires more
time for solidification and cooling
o they are likely location of shrinkage cavities
- use of cores
o minor changes in part design can reduce the need of cores
- dimensional tolerances
o significant differences in the dimensional accuracies that can be achieved in casting,
depending on the process used
- surface finish
o typical surface roughness in sand castings about 6 micro m
o similarly poor finishes are obtained in shell molding
o plaster mold and investment casting produce netter roughness (0.75 micro m)
o die casting is known for good surface finishes (1micro m)
- machining allowances
o tolerances achievable in many casting processes are insufficient to meet functional
needs in many applications

38 | P a g e
 o portions of sand castings must be machined to some extent in order for the part to be
made functional
o therefore extra material (machining allowance) is left on the casting for machining
those surfaces when necessary (range between 1,5 mm to 3mm)
- draft
o the job of a draft in a mold is to facilitate removal of the pattern from the mold
o similar tapers should be allowed if solid cores are used in the casting process
o the required draft need only to be about 1 degree for sand casting and 2-3 degrees
for permanent mold presses

39 | P a g e
SHEET METAL WORKING
Cutting operations
- cutting is accomplished by a sheering action between two sharp cutting edges

- the penetration zone is usually one third of the thickness of the sheet
- characteristics of sheared edges of the sheer
o At the top of the cut surface is a region called the rollover
▪ It corresponds to the depression made by the punch in the work prior to
cutting
▪ Its where initial surface deformation occurred
o Relatively smooth aera below the rollover: burnish
▪ Results from penetration of the punch before the fracture began
o Fractured zone: beneath the burnish
▪ Relatively rough surface of the cut edge where the continued downward
movement of the punch caused a fracture of the metal
o At the bottom edge is a burr
▪ Sharp corner on the edge caused by elongation of the metal during final
separation of the two pieces

40 | P a g e
Shearing, blanking and punching
- 3 most important operations in pressworking
- Shearing – sheet metal cutting operation along a straight line between 2 cutting edges
o Typically used to cut large sheets into smaller sections for subsequent pressworking
o Performed on a machine called power shears, or squaring shears
▪ The upper blade is often inclined to reduce required cutting force

Blanking – involves cutting off the sheet metal along a closed outline in a single step to separate the
piece from the surrounding stock

- Part cut away: the blank

Punching – similar to blanking except it produces a hole
- The separate piece is called a slug

41 | P a g e
Analysis of metal cutting
Clearance ( c )
- The distance between a punch and die
- Typical clearances range between 4-8% of the sheet metal thickness
- If the clearance is to small then the fracture lines tend to pass each other, causing double
burnishing and double cutting forces
- If the clearance is too large the metal becomes pinched between the cutting edges and an
excessive burr results
- In special operations requiring very straight edges, such as shaving and fine blanking, the
clearance is about 1% of stock thickness
- It can be calculated by:
𝑐 = 𝐴𝑐 𝑡
C – clearance(mm)
Ac – clearance allowance
T - stock thickness(mm)

- Ac is determined by the type of material used

- Metals are classified into 3 groups with an associated allowance value for each group

Equations derived from the clearance values

𝑩𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒂 𝒑𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒉 𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓 = 𝑫𝒃 − 𝟐𝒄

𝑩𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒅𝒊𝒆 𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓 = 𝑫𝒃
𝑯𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝒑𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒉 𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓 = 𝑫𝒉
𝑯𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝒅𝒊𝒆 𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓 = 𝑫𝒉 + 𝟐𝒄
- For the slug or blank to drop the die opening must have an angular clearance of 0,25 – 1,5
degrees on each side

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Cutting forces
- The force determines the size of the press needed
- Can be determined by:
𝐹 = 𝑆𝑡𝐿
S – shear strength of sheet metal ( MPa)
t – stock thickness (mm)
L – length of the cut edge (mm)

If shear strength is unknown: F = 0.7(TS)(t)(L)

TS – ultimate tensile strength (MPa)
Shear angle

- Equations for estimating a cutting force assume that the entire cut along the shear edge is done
at the same time
- The shear angle spreads the cut over time and reduces the force experienced at any moment
- However, the total energy required in the operation is still the same

Other sheet metal operations

Cut off and parting
Cutoff – shearing operation in which blanks are separated from a sheet metal strip by cutting the
opposite sides of the part in sequence

- With each cut, a new part is produced

- The features of a cutoff operation that distinguishes it from a conventional shearing operation
is
o The cut edges are not necessarily straight
o The blanks can be nested on the strip in such a way that scrap is avoided
Parting – cutting a sheet metal strip by a punch with two cutting edges that match the opposite sides of
the blank

43 | P a g e
 - Might be required because the outline part is an irregular shape that precludes perfect nesting
of the blanks on the strip
- Parting is less efficient than cutoff – results in wasted material

Slotting perforating and notching

Slotting – term sometime used for a punching operation that cuts out an elongated or rectangular hole
Perforating – involves the simultaneous punching of a pattern of holes in the sheet metal
- The pattern is usually for décor or to allow passage of light, gas or fluid
Notching – involves cutting out a portion of metal from the side of a sheet or strip
Semi notching – removes a portion of metal from the sheet

- Might seem to be same as punching or slotting

- Difference : metal removed creates part of the blank outline, while punching and slotting
creates holes in the blank

Trimming, shaving and fine blanking

Trimming – cutting operation preformed on a formed part to remove access metal and establish size
Shaving – shearing operation performed with very small clearance to obtain accurate dimensions and
cut edges that are smooth and straight

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Fine blanking – shearing operation used to blank sheet metal parts with close tolerance and smooth
straight edges in one step

- At the start of a cycle a pressure pad with a V-shape projection applies a holding force
against the work adjacent on the punch in order to compress the metal an prevent distortion
- The punch then decent with a slower velocity than normal, and smaller clearance to provide the
desired dimensions and cut edges
- The progress is usually reserved for relevantly small stock thickness

Bending operations
Bending – the staining of a metal around a straight axis
- Metal on the inside of bend is compressed
- Metal on the outside of the bend is stretched

v-bending and edge-bending

- V-bending: the Sheetmetal is bent between a V-shaped punch and die
o acute to obtuse angles can be made using V-die
o v-bending is generally used for low production operations
o often performed on a press break
o associated v-dies are relevantly simple and inexpensive
- edge-bending: involves cantilever loading of the sheet metal
o a pressure pad is used to apply a force to hold the base of the part against the die,
while the punch forces the part to yield and bend over the edge of the die
- wiping-dies : used to make more complicated angles ( larger than 90 degrees )
o most costly than v-dies and are generally used for high production work

Analysis of bending
• Metal of thickness (t) is bent through an angle (𝜶)
o Results in a sheet metal part with an included angle 𝛼’, where 𝜶 + 𝜶" = 𝟏𝟖𝟎°

45 | P a g e
 o The bend radius is normally specified on the inside of the part, rather than the neutral
axis, and is determined by the radius R on the tooling used to perform the operation
o The bend is made over the width of the workpiece w
BEND ALLOWANCE
• If bend radius is small relative to stock thickness: metal tends to stretch during bending
• Why do we estimate the amount of stretching?
o So that the final part length matches a specific dimension
o The problem is to determine the length of the neutral axis before bending to account
for stretching of the final section
𝛼
𝐴𝑏 = 2𝜋 (𝑅 + 𝐾𝑏𝑎 𝑡)
360
Ab- bend allowance (mm)

𝛼 – bend angle (degrees)

R – bend radius (mm)
t – stock thickness (mm)
Kba – factor to estimate stretching

• If R<2t then Kab = 0,33

• If R>= 2t then Kab=0.5
Springback
• When bending pressure is removed at the end of operation, elastic energy remains in the bent
part, causing the object to recover partially to its original shape
• Defined as the increase in the included angle of the bent part relative to the included angle of
the forming tool after the tool has been removed
𝛼 ′ − 𝛼′𝑏
𝑆𝐵 =
𝛼′𝑏
SB – springback
a’ – the included angle of the sheet metal part (degrees)

𝛼′𝑏 - included angle of bending tool (degrees)

• Compensation for spring back can be accomplished by :

o Overbending – the punch angle and radius are fabricated slightly smaller than the
specified angle on the final part so that the sheet metal springs back to the desired
value
o Bottoming – involves squeezing the part at the end of the stroke, thus plastically
deforming it in the bend region

46 | P a g e
Bending force
- Force required to perform bending depends on the geometry of the punch and die and the
strength , thickness and length of the sheet metal
- Maximum bending force:

𝐾𝑏𝑓 (𝑇𝑆)𝑤𝑡 2
𝐹=
𝐷
F – Bending force N
TS – tensile strength of the sheet metal (Mpa)
w – width of part in the direction of the bend axis (mm)
t – stock thickness (mm)
D – the opening dimension
Kbf – constant that accounts for differences encountered in an actual bending process

- Its value depends on the type of bending

- V – binding: 1.33
- Edge-bending: 0.33

Other bending and forming operations

FLANGING
- The edge of a sheet metal part is bent at a 90° angle to form a rim or flange
o Often used to strengthen or stiffen sheet metal
o Can be formed over a straight bend axis or it can involve some stretching or shrinking
of the metal
HEMMING
- Bending the edge of a sheet over on itself, in more than one bending step
- Often done to eliminate the sharp edge on the piece, to increase stiffness, and improve
appearance
SEAMING
- Related operation in which two sheet metal edges are assembled
CURLING
- Also called beading
- Forms edges of the part in an roll or curl

47 | P a g e
 - Done in purposes of safety, strength and aesthetics
o Hinges, pots and pans

Miscellaneous bending operations

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Drawing
• Sheet-metal forming operations used to make cup-shaped, box shaped, or other complex
curved and concave parts
• Performed by
o placing a piece of sheet metal over the cavity and then pushing the metal into the
opening with a punch
o The blank must usually be held down flat against the die by a blankholder
• Used to make cans, ammunition shells, sinks, pots and automobile body panels

Mechanics of drawing
• Blank diameter Db is drawn into a cup with a punch with diameter Dp
• Punch and die must have corner radii: Rp and Rd
o If it had sharp corners R=0 and a hole punching operation would be accomplished
and not a drawing operation
• Sides of the punch and die are separated by clearance c
o Clearance is about 10% greater than stock thickness
▪ 1.1t=c
• Punch applies downward force F to apply deformation of a force and a downward holding
force Fh is applied by die blankholder
• As the punch proceeds downward toward ts final position, the work experiences a complex
sequence of stresses as it is gradually formed into its shape defined by the punch and die

49 | P a g e
Stages in deformation process:

1. As the punch begins the push into the work, the metal is subjected into the bending operation
• The sheet is simply bent over the corner of the punch and the corner of the die
• The outside perimeter of the blank moves in toward the centre in this first stage, but only
slightly
2. As the punch moves further down a straightening action occurs in the metal that was previously
bent over the radius
• The metal at the bottom of the cup, as well as along the cup radius has been moved
downward with the punch, but the metal that was bent over the radius must then be
straightened to be pulled into the clearance to form the wall of the cylinder
• At the same time more metal needs to be added to replace that being used in the cylinder
wall
• The new metal comes from the outside edge of the blank
• The metal in the outer portions of the blank is pulled or drawn toward the die opening to
resupply the previously bent and straightened metal now forming the cylinder wall
• This type of metal flow through a constricted space gives the drawing process its name
3. During this stage friction and compression play an important role in the flange of the blank
• For the material in the flange to move toward the opening, friction between the sheet
metal and the surface of the blankholder and die must be overcome
• Static friction is involved until the metal starts to slide; after metal flow begins, dynamic
frictions governs the process
• The magnitude of the holding force applied by the blankholder, and the friction conditions
at the two interfaces, are determining factors in the success of this aspect of the drawing
operation
• Lubricants or drawing compounds are generally used to reduce friction
• Compression – as the metal in that portion of the blank is drawn toward the centre, the
outside perimeter becomes smaller
• Because the volume of the metal remains constant, the metal is squeezed and becomes
thicker as the perimeter reduces
• It often results in the wrinkling of the remaining flange of the blank, specifically when thin
sheet metal is drawn, or when the blankholder force is too low
• The condition can’t be corrected once it had occurred
4. The holding force applied to the blankholder is a critical factor is deep drawing
• Too small = wrinkling

50 | P a g e
 • Too large = prevents metal from flowing properly towards the cavity, resulting in
stretching and possible tearing of the sheet metal
• Determining the proper holding force involves a delicate balane between these opposing
factors
5. Progressive downward motion of the punch results in continuation of the metal flow caused by
drawing and compression
• In addition, some thinning of the cylinder wall occurs
• The force being applied by the punch is opposed by the metal in the form of deformation
and friction in the operation
• A portion of the deformation involves stretching and thinning of the metal as it is pulled
over the edge of the opening
• Up to 25% thinning of the side wall may occur in a successful drawing operation, mostly
near the base of the cup
Common defects

- Wrinkling in the flange – consists of a series of ridges that form radially in the undrawn flange
of the work part due to compressive buckling
- Wrinkling in the wall – if and when the wrinkled flange is drawn into the cup, these ridges
appear in the vertical wall
- Tearing – a open crack in the vertical wall , usually near the base of the drawn cup, due to
high tensile stresses that cause thinning and failure of the metal at this location – can also occur
when metal is pulled over a sharp corner
- Earing – formation of irregularities (ears) in the upper edge of a deep drawn cup, caused by
anisotropy in the sheet metal
- Surface scratches – can occur on the drawn part if the punch and die are not smooth or the
lubrication is not sufficient

Analysis of drawing
Measures of drawing
Drawing ratio
- Ration of the blank diameter to the punch diameter
𝑫𝒃
- 𝑫𝑹 = 𝑫𝒑
- Provides and indication of the severity of a given drawing operation
o Greater ratio – more severe
o Smaller ratio – less severe
- Approximate upper limit : 2.0
o actual limit depends on the punch and corner radii, friction conditions, depth of draw
and characteristics of the sheet metal

51 | P a g e
reduction:
𝑫𝒃−𝑫𝒑
- 𝒓= 𝑫𝒃
o Very close related to the drawing ratio, still consistent with the previous limit
(DR<=2.0), the value of reduction should be less than 0.5
Thickness-to-diameter ratio (t/Db)

- Thickness of starting blank t, divided by the blank diameter Db

- Often expressed as a percentage, with the desirable outcome that it be greater than 1%
o As t/Db increases, the chance of wrinkling increases

Forces
- The drawing force:
𝐷𝑏
o 𝐹 = 𝜋 ∗ 𝐷𝑝 ∗ 𝑡(𝑇𝑆) ( − 0.7)
𝐷𝑝
▪ TS – tensile strength (MPa)
▪ The drawing force varies throughout the downward movement of the punch,
usually reaching its maximum value at about one third the length of the punch
stroke
o Approximation of the holding pressure can be set at a value = 0.015 of the yield
strength of the sheet metal. The value can then be multiplied by that portion of the
starting area of the blank that is to be help by the blankholder
▪ 𝐹ℎ = 0.015𝑌𝜋(𝐷𝑏 2 − (𝐷𝑏 + 2.2𝑡 + 2𝑅𝑑)2 )
▪ Fh – blank holding force N
▪ Y – yield strength of the sheet metal MPa
▪ t = starting stock thickness
▪ Rd = corner radius
o Usually one third of the drawing force

Blank size determination

- For the final dimensions to be achieved on a cylindrical drawn shape, the correct starting blank
diameter is needed
o Must be large enough to supply sufficient metal to complete the cup, but if there is too
much metal then some will waste
o For non-cylindrical shapes:
▪ Same problem of estimating starting blank size exists, only the shape of the
blank may be other than round
▪ It can be calculated by setting the initial blank value = the final volume of the
product and solving for diameter Db
▪ Often assumed that negligible thinning of the part wall occurs

Other drawing operations

- Redrawing – if a change in the shape of the cup is required, but too severe, complete forming
of the part may require more than one single drawing.
o Related is reverse drawing, in which the part is positioned face down on the die so
o Reverse drawing is easier on the metal – why? Bc sheet metal is bent in the same
direction at the outside and inside corners of the reverse drawing. Experience less
strain hardening in reverse drawing and the drawing force is lower

52 | P a g e
Drawing without a blankholder
o Primary functions: preventing wrinkling of the flange whilst the cup is being drawn
o The tendency of wrinkling is reduced as the thickness-to-diameter ratio of the blank
increases
▪ If the t/Db ratio is large enough, drawing can be accomplished without a
blankholder
▪ Limiting condition: Db – Dp < 5t
o The draw must have the shape of a funnel or cone to permit the material to be drawn
properly into the cavity
o When feasible, the advantages are:
▪ Lower cost tooling and simpler press, because the need to separately control
the movements of the blankholder and punch can be avoided

53 | P a g e
Dies and presses for sheet metal processes
Dies
- Nearly all preceding operations are done with conventional punch and die tooling
o Term stamping die is sometimes used for high production dies
▪ Its custom designed for the product that must be produced

Stamping die: components:

- Punch and die – perform the cutting operation
o Attached to the upper and lower portions of the die set, and is called respectively:
punch holder (upper shoe) and die holder (lower shoe)
o Die set also includes guide pins and bushings to ensure proper alignment between the
punch and die during the stamping operation
o The die holder is attached to the base of the press, and the punch holder is attached
to the ram
o Actuation of the ram accomplishes the operation
- A die set used for blanking, or a hole punch must contain a means of preventing the remaining
sheet metal from clinging to the punch when its retracted upward after the operation
▪ The newly created hole in the stock is the same size as the punch, and it tends
to stick to the punch on the withdrawal
- A stripper
o Device that strips the sheet metal from the punch
o Often a simple plate attached to the punch with a hole slightly larger than the punch
diameter
- For a die that process strips or coils of sheet metal, a device is required to stop the sheet metal
as it advances through the die between press cycles
o Device is called a stop
o Stops range from simple to solid pins s located in the path of a strip to block its
forward motion to more complex mechanisms synchronised to rise and retract with the
actuation of the press

Types of stamping dies

- Simple die
o Performs a single blanking operation with each stroke of the press
- V-dies
o Die that perform a single operation
- Compound die
o Performs 2 operations at a single station, such as blanking and punching
o Eg a washer

54 | P a g e
 - Combination die
o Less common
o Perfroms two operations at two different stations in the die
o Eg. Blanking 2 different parts ( left hand and right hand parts) or blanking and then
bending the same part
- Progressive die
o Performs 2 or more operations on a sheet metal coil at two or more stations with each
press stroke, so that the part is fabricated progressively
o The coil is fed from one station to the next and different operations ( punching,
notching, bending, and blanking) are performed at each station
o When the part is in the final station, it has been completed and separated from the
remaining coil
o Design of a progressive die begins with the layout of the part on the strip or coil and
the determination of which operations are to be performed at each station
o The result of this procedure is called strip development
o progressive dies can have a dozen or more stations
o the the most complicated and most costly stamping dies
▪ economically only justified for complex parts requiring multiple operations at
high production rates

Presses
- a press used for sheet metal working is a machine tool with a stationary bed and a powered
ram (or slide) that can be driven toward or away from the bed to perform various cutting and
forming operations
- the relative position of the bed and the ram are established by the frame
- the ram is driven by mechanical, hydraulic power
- when a die set is mounted in the press, the punch holder is attached to the ram and the holder
is attached to the bolster plate of the bed
- presses are available in various capacities, power systems, and frame types
o capacity of a press – its ability to deliver the required force and energy to accomplish
the stamping operation
▪ measured in kN
▪ determined by the physical size of the press and by its power system

55 | P a g e
 ▪ production rate is another important aspect of capacity
o the power system - refers to whether mechanical and hydraulic power is used, and the
type of drive used to transmit power to the ram
o type of frame – refers to the physical construction of the press
▪ there are two frame types in common use:
• gap frame and straight sided frame

Gap frame presses

- general configuration of the letter C and is often called a C-frame
- Gap frame presses provide good access to the die, and they are usually open in the back to
permit convenient ejections of stampings and scrap
- Size is correlated to capacity
- Principal types of gap frame press include:
o A solid gap frame
▪ Also called gap press
▪ Has a one piece construction
▪ Presses from the frame are rigid, yet the same C-shape provides convient
access from the sides for feeding strip or coil stock
▪ Available in a range of sizes, with capacities up to around 9000kN

o Open – back inclinable

▪ Has a C-frame assembled to a base in such a way that the frame can be
titled back to various angles so that the stampings fall through the rear
opening by gravity
▪ Capacities range between 9kN and 2250kN
▪ They can be operated at high speeds - up to 1000 strokes per minute

56 | P a g e
o Press brake
▪ Gap frame press with a very wide bed, which allow a number of separate
dies (simple V-bending dies are typical) to be set up in the bed, so that the
small quantities of stampings can be made economically
▪ These low quantities of parts sometimes require bends at different angles – a
manual operation
▪ For a part requiring a series of bend, the operator moves the starting piece of
sheet metal through the desired sequence of bending dies, actuating the press
at each die, to complete the work needed

o Turret press
▪ presses are suited to situations in which a sequence of punching, notching, and
related cutting operations must be accomplished on sheet metal parts
▪ Turret presses have a C-frame
▪ The conventional ram and punch is replaced by a turret containing many
punches of different sizes and shapes
▪ The turret works by indexing (rotating) toward the position holding the punch
to perform the required operation
▪ Beneath the punch turret is a corresponding die turret that positions the
opening for each punch
▪ Between the punch and die is the sheet metal blank held by a x-y positioning
system that operates by CNC
▪ The blank is moved to the required coordinate for each operation

57 | P a g e
Straight sided machine presses
- For jobs requiring high forces, press frames with greater structural rigidity are needed
- They have full sides, giving a box-like appearance
o It increases the strength and stiffness of the frame
- Capacities up to 35 000 kN
- Large presses of this frame type is used for forging
- The size is correlated to the capacity – larger presses are built to withstand higher forces in
pressworking
- Press size is also related to the size that the press can operate
o Smaller presses are generally capable of higher production rates

58 | P a g e
Power and drive systems
- Either hydraulic of mechanical in presses

- Hydraulic
o Use a large piston and cylinder to drive the ram
o Typically provides longer ram strokes than mechanical drives
o Can develop full force capacity through out the entire stroke
o However, its slower
o Its application for sheet metal is normally limited to deep drawing and other forming
operations where these load-stroke characteristics are advantageous
o These presses are available with one or more independently operated slides, called
single action, double action and so on
o Double action presses: useful in deep drawing operations where it is required to
separately control the punch force and the blank holder force
- Mechanical
o Types of drive mechanisms:
▪ Eccentric
▪ Crankshaft
▪ Knuckle joint
o They convert the rotational motion of a drive motion into the linear motion of a ram
o A fly wheel is used to store the energy of the drive motor for use in the stamping
operation
o Mechanical presses using these drives achieve very high forces at the bottom of their
strokes
o Suited for blanking and punching operations
o The knuckle joint delivers very high force when it bottoms, and is therefore often used
in coining operations

Other sheet metal forming operations

Operations performed by metal tooling
1. Ironing
- Process
o In deep drawing the flange is compressed by the squeezing action of the blank
perimeter seeking a smaller circumference as it is drawn toward the opening
o Because of the compression the sheet metal near the outer edge of the blank becomes
thicker as it moves inward
o If the thickness of the stock is smaller than the clearance between the punch and die, it
will be squeezed into the size of the clearance
- Sometimes ironing is performed as a separate step the follows drawing
- Ironing makes a cylindrical cup more uniform in wall thickness
- The drawn part is therefore longer and more efficient in terms of material usage
- Cans and bullet casings have ironing among processing steps

59 | P a g e
2. Coining and embossing
- Coining
o Bulk deformation process
o Frequently used in sheet metal work to form indentations and raised sections
▪ Indentations – sheet metal thinning
▪ Raises – sheet metal thickening
o More significant deformation process than embossing
- Embossing
o Forming operation used to create indentations in a sheet such as raised lettering or
strengthening ribs
o Same stretching and thinning involved
o Like coining
▪ Embossing dies process matching cavity contours
• Punch contains positive contour and die containing negative contour
▪ Coining can have 2 different cavities in the 2 halves

3. Lancing
- Combined cutting and bending or cutting and forming operation performed in one step to
partially separate metal from the sheet
- Application: used to make louvres in sheet metal, air vents for heating and air conditioning
systems in buildings

4. Twisting
- Subjects sheet metal to a torsion loading rather than a bending load, thus causing a twist in the
sheet metal over its length
- Fan or propeller blades
- Can be performed using a conventional punch and die than has been designed to perform the
part twist

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Rubber forming processes
1. Guerin process
- Process
➢ uses a thick rubber pad (or other flexible material) to form sheet metal over a positive form block
➢ The rubber pad is confined in a steel container
➢ As the ram descends, the rubber gradually surrounds the sheet, applying pressure to deform it to the shape of
the form block
- It is limited to relatively shallow forms, because the pressures developed by the rubber- up to about 10 MPa- are
not sufficient to prevent wrinkling in deeper formed parts.
- advantage
o the relatively low cost of the tooling
▪ The form block can be made of wood, plastic, or other materials that are easy to shape, and
the rubber pad can be used with different form blocks. These factors make rubber forming
attractive in small-quantity production, such as the aircraft industry, where the process was
developed.

2. Hydroforming
- similar to the Guerin process
o the difference is that it substitutes a rubber diaphragm filled with hydraulic fluid in place of the thick
rubber pad
o This allows the pressure that forms the work part to be increased- to around 100 MPa
▪ preventing wrinkling in deep formed parts
o deeper draws can be achieved with the hydroform process than with conventional deep drawing
▪ the uniform pressure in hydroforming forces the work to contact the punch throughout its length,
thus increasing friction and reducing the tensile stresses that cause tearing at the base of the
drawn cup

Sheet Metal Operations Not Performed on Presses

1. STRETCH FORMING
• Stretch forming is a sheet metal deformation process in which the sheet metal is intentionally stretched and
simultaneously bent in order to achieve shape change
• The work part is gripped by one or more jaws on each end and then stretched and bent over a positive die
containing the desired form
• The metal is stressed in tension to a level above its yield point
• When the tension loading is released, the metal has been plastically deformed. The combination of stretching and
bending results in relatively little springback in the part.
• An estimate of the force required in stretch forming can be obtained by multiplying the cross-sectional area of the
sheet in the direction of pulling by the flow stress of the metal.

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 F = LtYf

o F = stretching force, N
o L = length of the sheet in the direction perpendicular to stretching, mm
o t = instantaneous stock thickness, mm
o Y, = flow stress of the work metal, MPo.
❖ The die force can be determined by balancing vertical force components.
❖ More complex contours are possible by stretch forming, but there are limitations on how sharp the curves in the
sheet can be
❖ Stretch forming is widely used in the aircraft and aerospace industries to economically produce large sheet metal
parts in the low quantities characteristic of those industries

2. ROLL BENDING AND ROLL FORMING

- The operations described in this section use rolls to form sheet metal.
- Roll bending is an operation in which (usually) large sheet metal or plate metal parts are formed into curved
sections by means of rolls.
o The rolls are brought toward each other to a configuration that achieves the desired radius of curvature
on the work
- Process:
o As the sheet passes between the rolls
o the rolls are brought toward each other to a configuration that achieves the desired radius of curvature
on the work. Components for large storage tanks and pressure vessels are fabricated by roll bending
o The operation can also be used to bend structural shapes, railroad rails, and tubes.
- Roll straightening
o nonflat sheets (or other cross-sectional forms) are straightened by passing them between a series of rolls.
o The rolls subject the work to a sequence of decreasing small bends in opposite directions, thus causing it to
be straight at the exit.
- Roll forming (also called contour roll forming)
o a continuous bending process in which opposing rolls are used to produce long sections of formed shapes
from coil or strip stock
o Several pairs of rolls are usually required to progressively accomplish the bending of the stock into the
desired shape.
o Products made by roll forming include channels, gutters, metal siding sections (for homes), pipes and
tubing with seams, and various structural sections.
o Although roll forming has the general appearance of a rolling operation (and the tooling certainly looks
similar), the difference is that roll forming involves bending rather than compressing the work.

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 3. SPINNING
- a metal forming process in which an axially symmetric part is gradually shaped over mandrel or form by means of
a rounded tool or roller
- The tool or roller applies a very localised pressure (to almost a point contact) deform the work by axial and radial
movements over the surface
- Basic shapes made by spinning:
o Cups, cones, hemispheres and tubes
Spinning operations include:
CONVENTIONAL SPINNING
- Conventional spinning is the basic spinning operation.
- Process:
o The process requires a series of steps, as indicated in the figure, to complete the shaping of the part.
▪ The tool position is controlled either by a human operator (manual spinning), using a fixed
fulcrum to achieve the required leverage, or by an automatic method such as numerical control
(power spinning). Power spinning has the capability to apply higher forces to the operation,
resulting in faster cycle times and greater work size capacity. It also achieves better process
control than manual spinning.
o Conventional spinning bends the metal around a moving circular axis to conform to the outside surface of
the axisymmetric mandrel.
▪ The thickness of the metal therefore remains unchanged (more or less) relative to the starting
disk thickness.
▪ The diameter of the disk must therefore be somewhat larger than the diameter of the resulting
part.
▪ The required starting diameter can be figured by assuming constant volume, before and after
spinning.

- Applications
o production of conical and curved shapes in low quantities
o Very large diameter parts- up to 5 m or more can be made by spinning
- Advantages
o Alternative sheet metal processes would require excessively high die costs.
o The form mandrel in spinning can be made of wood or other soft materials that are easy to shape. (low-
cost tool compared to the punch)

SHEAR SPINNING
- the part is formed over the mandrel by a shear deformation process in which the outside diameter remains constant
and the wall thickness is therefore reduced
- This shear straining (and consequent thinning of the metal) distinguishes this process from the bending action in
conventional spinning
- Several other names have been used for shear spinning, including flow turning, shear forming, and spin forging.
- The process has been applied in the aerospace industry to form large parts such as rocket nose cones.

For the simple conical shape in the figure, the resulting thickness of the spun wall can be readily determined by the sine law
relationship:
𝑡𝑓 = 𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
- tf = the final thickness of the wall after spinning
- t = the starting thickness of the disk, and
- a = the mandrel half angle

Thinning can be quantified by the spinning reduction r:

𝑡 − 𝑡𝑓
𝑟=
𝑡
- There are limits to the amount of thinning that the metal will endure in a spinning operation before fracture occurs.
- The maximum reduction correlates well with reduction of area in a tension test

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TUBE SPINNING
- Tube spinning is used to reduce the wall thickness and increase the length of a tube by means of a roller applied to
the work over a cylindrical mandrel
- Tube spinning is similar to shear spinning except that the starting workpiece is a tube rather than a flat disk.
- The operation can be performed by applying the roller against the work externally (using a cylindrical mandrel on
the inside of the tube) or internally (using a die to surround the tube).
- It is also possible to form profiles in the walls of the cylinder by controlling the path of the roller as it moves
tangentially along the wall.
- Spinning reduction for a tube-spinning operation that produces a wall of uniform thickness can be determined as in
shear spinning by the reduction equations

HIGH-ENERGY-RATE FORMING.
1. EXPLOSIVE FORMING
- involves the use of an explosive charge to form sheet (or plate) metal into a die cavity
- method
o The work part is clamped and sealed over the die - vacuum is created in the cavity beneath
o The apparatus is then placed in a large vessel of water
o An explosive charge is placed in the water at a certain distance above the work
o Detonation of the charge results in a shock wave whose energy is transmitted by the water to cause rapid
forming of the part into the cavity.
▪ The size of the explosive charge and the distance at which it is placed above the part are
largely a matter of art and experience. Explosive forming is reserved for large parts, typical
of the aerospace industry.
o There are other methods

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 2. ELECTROHYDRAULIC FORMING
- a HERF process
o in which a shock wave to deform the work into a die cavity is generated by the discharge of electrical
energy between two electrodes submerged in a transmission fluid (water).
o Owing to its principle of operation, this process is also called electric discharge forming
▪ Electrical energy is accumulated in large capacitors and then released to the electrodes.
- Electrohydraulic forming is similar to explosive forming
o The difference is in the method of generating the energy and the smaller amounts of energy that are
released. This limits electrohydraulic forming to much smaller part sizes.

3. ELECTROMAGNETIC FORMING
- also called magnetic pulse forming
- a process in which sheet metal is deformed by the mechanical force of an electromagnetic field induced in the work
part by an energized coil.
- The coil, energized by a capacitor, produces a magnetic field
- This generates eddy currents in the work that produce their own magnetic field
- The induced held opposes the primary field, producing a mechanical force that deforms the part into the
surrounding cavity. Developed in the 1960s, electromagnetic forming is the most widely used HERF process.
It is typically used to form tubular parts

Bending of Tube Stock

- Bending of tube stock is more difficult than sheet stock because a tube tends to collapse and fold when attempts are
made to bend it.
- Special flexible mandrels are usually inserted into the tube prior to bending to support the walls during the
operation.
- Terms in tube bending
o The radius of the bend R is defined with respect to the centerline of the tube.
o When the tube is bent, the wall on the inside of the bend is in compression, and the wall on the outside is
in tension.
▪ These stress conditions cause thinning and elongation of the outer wall and thickening and
shortening of the inner wall
▪ As a result, there is a tendency for the inner and outer walls to be forced toward each other to
cause the cross section of the tube to flatten
▪ Because of this flattening tendency, the minimum bend radius R that the tube can be bent is
about 1.5 times the diameter D when a mandrel is used and 3.0 times D when no mandrel is
used
▪ The exact value depends on the wall factor WF, which is the diameter D divided by wall
thickness t. Higher values of WF increase the minimum bend radius; that is, tube bending is more
difficult for thin walls
▪ Ductility of the work material is also an important factor in the process.

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Several methods to bend tubes
- Stretch bending is accomplished by pulling and bending the tube around a fixed form block
- Draw bending is performed by clamping the tube against a form block, and then pulling the tube through the bend
by rotating the block. A pressure bar supports the work as it is being bent.
- In compression bending, a wiper shoe is used to wrap the tube around the contour of a fixed form block
- Roll bending, generally associated with the forming of sheet stock, can also be used for bending tubes and other
cross sections.

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