Lesson 2: Metal Alloys

Metals - are opaque, lustrous elements that are good conductors of heat and electricity.
Metalloids - have a metallic appearance, brittle and a fair conductor of electricity but mostly behave as
non-metals.
Alloy - a mixture of chemical elements of which at least one is a metal and retains all the properties of a
metal.
Ferrous metals - metals that contain iron and steel.
Iron - most important of all metals used to manufacture steel.
Steel - it is an alloy and not a pure element and a variant ofmetal.
Ore - a naturally occurring mineral containing valuable constituent such as metals which is mined and
worked.

After metals are extracted from the ground as raw ore they undergo the following process;
> crushing the ore into powder
> heating it to high temperature
> rinsing it with water or a chemical bath
> filtering the sludge
> precipitating out the liquid
> applying an electric current to break strong chemical bonds.

Three Main Types of Metals

a) Ferrous metals - consist mostly of iron and small amounts of other elements and are prone to
rusting when exposed to moisture and can be magnetized.
 Steel
 Stainless Steel
 Tools and Dyes
 Cast Iron
 Carbon and Alloy Steel

b) Amorphous metals - a solid metallic material, usually an alloy withdisordered atomic-scale

structure.
 Iron
 Nickel
 Chromium
 Alloy with carbon
 Metallic Glasses

c) Non-ferrous metals - they do not have any iron in them at all which means that they are not
attracted to magnet and neither rust when exposed to moisture.
 Aluminum
 Copper
 Titanium
 Tungsten
Physical Properties of Metals
> lustrous - shiny appearance
> colour
> size
> shape
> density - mass or amount of matter in a unit volume
> melting points
> electric and thermal conductivity
> specific heat - the energy required to raise the temperature of a unit mass by one degree.

Mechanical Properties of Metals

Mechanical properties of metals are those that are associated with the ability of the material to resist
mechanical forces and load and includes the following:

1. Strength - ability of material to resist the externally applied forces without breaking.
2. Stiffness - ability of material to resist deformation under stress.
3. Elasticity - property of material to regain its original shape after deformation when external forces are
removed.
4. Plasticity - material retains the deformation permanently even when unloaded.
5. Ductility - enables the material to be drawn into wire with the application of tensile force.
6. Brittleness - the property of breaking with little permanent distortion.
7. Malleability - special case of ductility which permits materials to be rolled or hammered.
8. Toughness - property of material to resist fracture due to high impact loads like hammer blows.
9. Machinability- property that refers to relative case with which material can be cut.
10. Resilience - Property that absorbs energy and resist shock and impact loads.
11. Creep - a slow and permanent deformation as when a part is subjected to a constant stress at high
temperature for a long time.
12. Fatigue - when a material is subjected to a repeated stresses, it fails at stresses below the yield point
stress.
13. Hardness - ability to withstand friction essentially abrasion resistant an expressed in numbers
dependent on the method of making the test
> Brinell hardness test
> Rockwell hardness test
> Vicker’s hardness test
> Shore seleroscope

Electrical Properties of Metals

1. Conductivity - degree to which a material conducts electricity.

2. Resistivity - electrical resistance of a conductor of unit cross-sectional area and unit length.
3. Dielectric strength - is measured as the maximum voltage required to produce a dielectric breakdown
through a material.
4. Semiconductors - a substance that has specific electrical properties that enable it to serve as a
foundation for computers and other electronic devices.
5. Superconductors - A superconductor is a material that can conduct electricity or transport electrons
from one atom to another with no resistance used extensively in miniaturized electronic circuitry.
Magnetic Properties of Metals

1. Ferromagnetism - phenomenon characterized by high permeability and permanent magnetization

that are due to the alignment of iron, nickel, and cobalt atoms in domains. (e.g. electric motors, electric
generators, electric transformers and microwave devices)
2. Piezoelectric effect - a reversible interaction between an elastic strain and an electric field.
3. Magnetostriction – the phenomenon of expansion or contraction of a material when it is subjected to
a magnetic field.

Chemical Properties of Metals

1. Oxidation - the act or process of oxidizing or the condition of being oxidized example metal rusts
because it is oxidized by exposure to the air.
2. Corrosion- refers to the deteriorations of metals which reduces their strength and structural integrity.

Manufacturing Properties

The methods used to process materials to the desired shapes can adversely affect the product’s final
properties, service life, and cost. The manufacturing properties for metals are:
1. Casting- is a process of pouring molten metal into a mold cavity, where upon solidification, it takes
the shape of the cavity.
2. Forming- is changing the shape of the existing solid body.(e.g.a metal body for an automobile is made
by forming sheet metals in dies, starting with flat sheet.
3. Shaping- it is usually done by molding and casting. The resulting product is usually at or near the final
desired shape and may require little or no further finishing.
4. Machining- The parts to be machined maybe produced by casting, forging, extrusion and powder-
metallurgy. The closer the blank to be machined to the final shape desired, the fewer the number and
extent of the subsequently machining processes is required.
5. Joining - joining processes such as welding, brazing, soldering, adhesive bonding, and mechanical
fastening.
6. Finishing – is a process of completing the surface and body to make it complete to end product.

Applications of Metals
 Construction Industry
 Electronics
 Medicine
 Decorative Products
 Manufacturing

What do we look for in choosing materials?

> Function – what we need this product to do

> Durability – the product should stand the test of time
> Aesthetics – the fine balance between appearance, durability and cost
> Consistency of performance – the product should record low failure rate in testing
> Cost – the balance between high quality materials and keeping costs at an appropriate level
Lesson 3: Casting Process

Casting is the process of making objects by pouring molten metal into an empty shaped space
where it cools and hardens into the form given to it by this shaped mold.

There are five steps in the casting process

1. Pattern Making - involves making a replica of the product to be cast which can then be used to
shaped the mold cavity and provide accurate dimensions and characteristics.
Investment Casting - is a specific type of casting production using wax patterns.
2. Molding - the mold is prepped to receive the molten metal. There are two types of mold
processes in casting; the reusable and non-reusable.
3. Sand Casting - is the most common non-reusable molding process. In sand casting treated sand
is packed tightly around the pattern and placed in a support called “flask”.
4. Shakeout and Cleaning - once the molten metal solidifies the mold is vibrated in order to
remove the sand from the casting.
5. Heat Treatment and Inspection - depending on its final usage, the product may undergo various
finishing treatments.
• freezing temperature
• wet environments
• extreme weight

Classification of Casting Process

1. Sand Casting - a versatile casting process that can be used to cast any metal alloy and widely
used for mass production.
2. Gravity Die Casting - also known as permanent mold casting and uses reusable molds made
of metal. Gravity die casting is used for manufacturing gears, gear housing, wheels, engine
pistons etc.
3. Pressure Die Casting - it uses non alloy metals like zinc, tin, copper and aluminum. The
molten metal is injected into a reusable mold coated with lubricant at high pressure and
maintained throughout the process to avoid metal hardening.
> Low pressure die casting - for large and single parts production
> High pressure die casting - for mass production of complex geometries and
require high precision.
4. Investment Casting - also known as lost-wax casting is a process that uses wax pattern with
refractory material and a binding agent to shape. It is an expensive and labor intensive process.
5. Plaster Casting - it is similar to sand casting except that the mold is made of a mixture called
“Plaster of Paris”. It cools the metal more slowly due to low thermal conductivity and heat
capacity of plaster.
6. Centrifugal Casting - also known as roto casting uses a preheated spinning die in which the
molten metal is poured. The centrifugal forces help to distribute the molten metal within the die
at high pressure.

Three types of centrifugal process:

> True centrifugal process - molten metal sticks to the sides due to continuous rotation.
> Semi centrifugal process - the mold is completely filled using a sprue
> Vertical centrifugal process - uses directional molding following the same process as true
centrifugal process.
7. Lost-Foam Casting - similar to investment casting only it uses foam for the pattern instead of
wax. Once the pattern is formed it is coated with a refractory ceramics by dipping, spraying or
brushing. (e.g. pump housing,fire hydrant, valves etc)
8. Vacuum Casting - production occurs at vacuum pressure of 100 bar or less to exhaust gas
from the mold cavity. Molten metal is poured into the mold cavity inside a vacuum chamber to
eliminate bubbles and air pockets.
9. Continuous Casting - molten metal is poured at a calculated rate in a water cooled, open-
ended mold where solidification happens from the outside in.
10. Shell Molding - it is an expendable mold casting. Similar to sand casting except for that the
hardened shell of sand forms the mold cavity instead of a flask. (e.g camshafts, valve
bodies,truck hoods etc).

Lesson 4: Forming Process

Forming is a mechanical process used in manufacturing industries wherein materials

( mostly metal ) undergo plastic deformations and acquired required shapes and sizes by
application of suitable stresses such as compression, shear and tension.

Primary Forming - it is a forming process maximizing materials with minimal waste and
loss of volume.

Metal forming can also be defined as a process in which the desired shapes are
obtained through the deformation of metals plastically under the action of externally applied
forces.
> stainless steel
> galvanized steel
> aluminum
> brass
> copper

Types of Forming Process

1. Forging - the oldest metal forming operation, involves the shaping of metal using
compressive forces through a hammer or a die. It is classified according to the temperature at
which it is performed.

a) Cold Working - metal is shaped below its recrystallization temperature usually at ambient
temperature.
b) Hot forging - metal is shaped above its recrystallization temperature which varies from 3400
to 4000 C
2. Extrusion - used for products of fixed cross sectional profile by pushing material through a die
of desired cross section.
> creates excellence surface finished
> gives considerable freedom of form in the design process.
3. Rolling - a metal forming process where metal is passed through one or more pairs of rolls to
reduce the thickness. It is classified according to the temperature of the metal,
cold and hot rolling process.
4. Sheet Metal Forming - metals are formed in thin, flat pieces usually by an industrial process
and can be cut and bent into a variety of shapes. Thickness of thin metal varies from 0.50mm -
6.0mm.
> foil - a very thin sheet of metal (0.03mm) usually made with malleable metal such as
aluminum, copper, tin and gold.
> plate - sheet metals thicker than 6.0mm

5. Swaging - a compressive cold forming process used to manipulate the shape of metal where a
metal workpiece is forced through a die & as it is pushed through it takes the die’s shape
6. Thread Rolling - threads are formed into a blank by pressing a shaped tool called “thread
rolling die” against the blank and are used for large production run. This is most likely similar to
tapping and knurling process.
7. Drawing - it is a metal working process that uses tensile forces to stretch or elongate the
metal. It is being pulled or pushed through a mold or die to achieved a desired shape or
thickness. It is classified into two types
> sheet metal drawing - a plastic deformation over a curved axis.
> wire, bar and tube drawing - the starting stock is drawn through a die to reduce its diameter
and increase its length. The amount of drawing force is limited by the tensile strength of the
material.

1. Forging
Advantages
> it has an improved strength characteristics
> it has a long product life cycle
Disadvantages
> involve significant capital expenditure for machinery, tooling , facilities and personnel
> difficulty in performing secondary machining

2. Extrusion
Advantages
> ability to create complex cross sections
> high production volume
> excellent surface finish
> low cost per part
> can produce long products
Disadvantages
> high initial cost set up
> product limitations because only one type of cross section can be obtained at a time

3. Rolling Process
Advantages
> suitable for mass production
> has high efficiency
> can produced complex cross section profiles
> can produced workpiece with very close tolerances
Disadvantages
> cost of equipment is high
> suitable for large scale production only
> poor surface finish

4. Sheet Metal Forming

Advantages
> heat resistant
> improved strength
Disadvantages
> longer post-fabrication finishing, such as deburring and painting
> difficult to create complex pieces

5. Swaging Process (Rotary)

Advantages
> Improves surface finish of the material
> Enhance tensile strength
> Ensures close tolerances
Disadvantages
> limited proces due to diameter of rod and die
> noisy operation

6. Thread Rolling Process

Advantages
> good surface finish
> can be hardened to improve the strength and hardness;
> high material utilization rate
> higher rate of production
> rolling die life is very long.
Disadvantages
> required high dimensional accuracy of the blank
> required high precision & hardnes of the rolling die

7. Drawing Process
Advantages
> suitable for high or long run production order
> lower cost of raw materials
Disadvantages
> cost of press set up is remarkably high
> not effective in small quantity production
> needs high expertise for the machine operator

Industrial Application of Forming Process

Metal forming processes are used to produce structural parts and components that
have widespread applications in many industries including

a) Automobile industry
> chassis
 > enclosures
> housings or bodies
> brackets
> car doors

b) Electronics
> cellphones
> drones
> computers
> tablets
> telecommunications
> house appliances

c) aerospace
> airplane fueslages
> bodies
> wings

d) construction
> roofings
> door/window frames
> piping
> rebars
> I-beams
> decorative features
> checkered plates
> gutters

e) major appliances
> gas range housing
> heater
> kitchen utensils
> frames of bed

g) tin plates for tin cans

Lesson 5: Machining Process

Machining is most commonly used to manufacture metal objects, parts and tools. It is a
manufacturing process which involves removing materials (usually metal) using cutting tools for getting
rid of the unwanted materials from some workpiece and converting it into the shape you desire, by a
controlled material-removal process. This process is also called as subtractive manufacturing, which
utilizes machine tools, in contrast to additive manufacturing (3D printing), which uses controlled
addition of material. Machining is a part of the manufacture of many metal products, but it can also be
used on other materials such as wood, plastic, ceramic, and composite material.
Metals that can be machined are:

> Stainless steel - used for precision machining, offering the advantage of strength and
resistance to corrosion.
> Aluminum - is lightweight, easy to work with and inexpensive.
> Brass - another economical material used for machining but should not be used in
semiconductor products because of the zinc and tin in the material.
> Titanium - is strong, lightweight and corrosion resistant but more expensive and difficult to
work with.
> Copper - a versatile and strong metal and works well as an electrical conductor.

Definition of Terms

Machinist - person who specializes in machining

Computer Numerical Control (CNC) - a computerized material removal machines that are used
to control the movement and operation of the cutting machines.
Workpiece - the work or material being process
Machine tools - the tooling used in material removal process.
Mild Steel - a ferrous metal suitable for most general engineering applications
Tool Steel - carbon steel suited for tooling materials
Carbon Steel - steel having a high percent of carbon content from 0.5 to 2.1% by weight.

Machine Used In Machining Operations

1. Lathe Machine - workpiece is clamp into the chuck and spins. As it rotates a cutting tool
moves either perpendicular or parallel to the workpiece to remove unwanted material.
Lathe machine is classified into two: (a) tradional or manual type and (b) automated or CNC
type.
 Turret Lathe - a special purpose lathe commonly used for repeated manufacturing of
parts with a tool holder that enables the machine to perform a number of cutting
operations.
2. Drilling Machine - produces cylindrical holes in solid materials using drill bits, it is one of the
most important machining process and a preliminary steps in producing finished holes.
3. Boring Machine - boring machine is used to refine the dimension and accuracy of a drilled
hole and is divided into
two types:
a) Vertical - used to machine very large heavy casting where the work turns while the boring bar
is held stationary.
b) Horizontal - it holds the workpiece stationary while the the cutting tool or boring bar is
rotating.
4. Milling Machine - uses rotating cutters to remove material while the table on which the
workpiece is mounted moves and the cutting tool is stationary.

Types of milling operations:

a) Slab milling - also called peripheral milling where the axis of cutter rotation is parallel to the
workpiece.
b) Face milling - cutter is mounted on a spindle having an axis of rotation perpendicular to the
workpiece surface.
c) end milling - the cutter usually rotates on an axis perpendicular to the axis although it can
also be tilted to machine tepered surfaces.

Generally there are two types of milling machine:

(a) vertical and (b) universal milling machine.

5. Planing Machine - is used primarily for machining large flat surfaces and also those with
various cross sections with grooves and notches. Cutting tool is fixed as the workpiece moves
back and forth.
6. Shaping Machine - similar to planing machine only it is suitable for smaller workpieces.
Cutting is moving and the workpiece is stationary.
7. Sawing or Cutting Machine - used for cutting shorter lengths of metals
8. Broaching Machine - is used to produced square holes, keyways, spline holes, etc. It consists
of many teeth looks like a file arranged sequentially. It is push or pull and takes a series of
progressively deeper cut.
9. Grinding Machine - used for sharpening of machine tools with the aid of an abrasive wheel.
10. ECM/EDM - Electro Chemical Machining (ECM) a non- traditional machining that uses
erosives sparks or chemicals and Electric Discharge Machining (EDM) uses a spark transmitted
through a die-electric fluid from an electrode to the surface of a conductive surface.

Machining Operations and Tooling

1. Drilling - holes are created in the metal through the use of a drill bit of different diameter
according to size of hole to be drilled.
2. Turning - basically a lathe operation where metal is removed from the workpiece outside its
diameter using a carbide or high speed steel cutting tool.
3. Milling - one of the fundamental operations in machining used for different purposes such as
> gear cutting - cutting tool is called milling cutter
> slotting / keyways - end mill is used for dutting
> planing flat surfaces - uses fly cutter
4. Grinding - used for improving the finish of the surface and uses abrasive grinding wheels.
5. Shaping - used for machining flat surfaces with the aid of carbide steel or high speed steel
attached to the tool holder fixed to the tool post.
6. Knurling - for machining parts requiring a grip for tightening and uses a knurling tool.
7. Reboring - machining operations used to enlarge the drilled hole of the material to a desired
diameter and uses boring tool.
8. Threading - a lathe operation used for threading for round shaftings. It uses a cutting tool
usually a carbide tip formed according to the type of thread required.
9. Surface Grinding - usually use for flat surfaces requiring a mirror finish product such as cutter
blades. It also uses abrasive wheels of fined grit.
10. Cutting - machining operations for cutting materials for machining done by using cut saw
blades. It can also be used for finished product with the use of cutter blade.
Advantages and Disadvantages of each Machining Operations

1. Lathe Machine
Advantages
> accuracy is very high in the case of CNC lathes
> flow of production is more
> requires few operators in a manual lathe
> fast machining in the lathe and CNC lathe
Disadvantages
> Setting time for holding job is very high.
> Only one tool can be used generally at a time.
> Idle time in between the operation is high.
> Preciseness of the job depends highly on the skills of
operator.

2. Drilling Machine
Advantages
> accurate points
> good feed control
Disadvantages
> difficult to roll.
> retraction is not flexible
> not suitable for processing deep holes and large holes

3. Boring Machine
Advantages
> ability to manufacture large machine parts
> fast cutting speed
Disadvantages
> it consumes a large area for installation
> it is expensive
> inconvenience in loading and unloading the workpiece

4. Milling Machine
Advantages
> high production rate
> reduced lead time
> high accuracy of the component can be obtained
Disadvantages
> investment cost is high
> skilled manpower is needed
> not suitable for cutting radial cut

5. Planing Machine
Advantages
> good surface finish
> greater accuracy
> more than one tool can perform at a time on the workpiece
> low maintenance required
Disadvantages
> not suitable for small parts production
> high investment cost
> skilled worker is required

6. Shaper Machine
Advantages
> low tooling cost
> workpiece set up is easy
> good for small production parts
> can be readily changed from one job to another job.
Disadvantages
> slow cutting speed
> only one cutting tool is used
> limited capacity when it comes to length of workpiece