Unit-II

Classification of materials. Discussion on mechanical properties; Classifications

grades, composition and properties of steels and alloys of aluminum,
magnesium, titanium and its applications in aircrafts.
Ceramics, Glass and its properties and types, tests for aircraft grade glass,
tempered and laminated glasses, plastics, classifications, properties and
applications in aircrafts.
 Materials
• Material is the matter, an object is made up of. It is a relatively broad term to be
defined. They are classified based upon their properties. They have properties
like hardness, strength, stiffness, thermal conductivity, heat capacity,
permeability, and magnetism, etc. Materials are the basic matter used in industry
to be processed and purified to give other materials or objects to be used.
• There are thousands of materials available for use in engineering applications.
Most materials fall into one of three classes that are based on the atomic
bonding forces of a particular material. These three classifications are metallic,
ceramic and polymeric. Additionally, different materials can be combined to
create a composite material. Within each of these classifications, materials are
often further organized into groups based on their chemical composition or
certain physical or mechanical properties. Composite materials are often
grouped by the types of materials combined or the way the materials are
arranged together.
 Materials

• Metals account for about two thirds of all the elements and about 24% of the mass of the
planet. Metals have useful properties including strength, ductility, high melting points, thermal
and electrical conductivity and toughness

Common Metallic Materials

• Iron/Steel - Steel alloys are used for strength critical applications
• Aluminum - Aluminum and its alloys are used because they are easy to form, readily available,
inexpensive, and recyclable.
• Copper - Copper and copper alloys have a number of properties that make them useful,
including high electrical and thermal conductivity, high ductility, and good corrosion resistance
• Titanium - Titanium alloys are used for strength in higher temperature (~1000° F) application,
when component weight is a concern, or when good corrosion resistance is required
• Nickel - Nickel alloys are used for still higher temperatures (~1500-2000° F) applications or
when good corrosion resistance is required.
• Refractory materials are used for the highest temperature (> 2000° F) applications.
 Materials

• Ceramics: A ceramic has traditionally been defined as “an inorganic,

nonmetallic solid that is prepared from powdered materials, is fabricated into
products through the application of heat, and displays such characteristic
properties as hardness, strength, low electrical conductivity, and brittleness." 
• Depending on their method of formation, ceramics can be dense or
lightweight. Typically, they will demonstrate excellent strength and hardness
properties; however, they are often brittle in nature.
• Ceramics can also be formed to serve as electrically conductive materials
or insulators. Some ceramics, like superconductors, also display magnetic
properties. They are also more resistant to high temperatures and harsh
environments than metals and polymers. Due to ceramic materials wide range
of properties, they are used for a multitude of applications.
 Materials

• The broad categories or segments that make up the ceramic industry can be classified as:
• Structural clay products (brick, sewer pipe, roofing and wall tile, flue linings, etc.)
• Whitewares (dinnerware, floor and wall tile, electrical porcelain, etc.)
• Refractories (brick and monolithic products used in metal, glass, cements, ceramics, energy
conversion, petroleum, and chemicals industries)
• Glasses (flat glass (windows), container glass (bottles), pressed and blown glass (dinnerware), glass
fibers (home insulation), and advanced/specialty glass (optical fibers))
• Abrasives (natural (garnet, diamond, etc.) and synthetic (silicon carbide, diamond, fused alumina,
etc.) abrasives are used for grinding, cutting, polishing, lapping, or pressure blasting of materials)
• Cements (for roads, bridges, buildings, dams, and etc.)
• Advanced ceramics
• Structural (wear parts, bioceramics, cutting tools, and engine components)
• Electrical (capacitors, insulators, substrates, integrated circuit packages, piezoelectrics, magnets
and superconductors)
• Coatings (engine components, cutting tools, and industrial wear parts)
• Chemical and environmental (filters, membranes, catalysts, and catalyst supports)
 Materials
A polymeric solid can be thought of as a material that contains many chemically bonded
parts or units which themselves are bonded together to form a solid. The word polymer
literally means "many parts." Two industrially important polymeric materials are plastics
and elastomers. Plastics are a large and varied group of synthetic materials which are
processed by forming or molding into shape. There are many types of plastics, such as
polyethylene and nylon. Elastomers or rubbers can be elastically deformed a large
amount when a force is applied to them and can return to their original shape (or
almost) when the force is released.
Polymers have many properties that make them attractive to use in certain conditions.
Many polymers:
• are less dense than metals or ceramics,
• resist atmospheric and other forms of corrosion,
• offer good compatibility with human tissue, or
• exhibit excellent resistance to the conduction of electrical current
 Materials
• The polymer plastics can be divided into two classes, thermoplastics and thermosetting
plastics, depending on how they are structurally and chemically bonded. Thermoplastic
polymers comprise the four most important commodity materials – polyethylene,
polypropylene, polystyrene and polyvinyl chloride. There are also a number of specialized
engineering polymers. The term ‘thermoplastic’ indicates that these materials melt on
heating and may be processed by a variety of molding and extrusion techniques. Alternately,
‘thermosetting’ polymers can not be melted or remelted. Thermosetting polymers include
alkyds, amino and phenolic resins, epoxies, polyurethanes, and unsaturated polyesters.
• Rubber is a natural occurring polymer. However, most polymers are created by engineering
the combination of hydrogen and carbon atoms and the arrangement of the chains they
form. The polymer molecule is a long chain of covalent-bonded atoms and secondary bonds
then hold groups of polymer chains together to form the polymeric material. Polymers are
primarily produced from petroleum or natural gas raw products but the use of organic
substances is growing. The super-material known as Kevlar is a man-made polymer. Kevlar is
used in bullet-proof vests, strong/lightweight frames, and underwater cables that are 20
times stronger than steel.
 Materials
• A composite is commonly defined as a combination of two or more distinct materials, each
of which retains its own distinctive properties, to create a new material with properties that
cannot be achieved by any of the components acting alone. For example, concrete is
a composite because it is a mixture of Portland cement and aggregate. Fiberglass sheet is
a composite since it is made of glass fibers imbedded in a polymer.
• Composite materials are said to have two phases. The reinforcing phase is the fibers, sheets,
or particles that are embedded in the matrix phase. The reinforcing material and the matrix
material can be metal, ceramic, or polymer. Typically, reinforcing materials are strong with
low densities while the matrix is usually a ductile, or tough, material.

Some of the common classifications of composites are: Reinforced plastics

• Metal-matrix composites
• Ceramic-matrix composites
• Sandwich structures
• Concrete
 Mechanical properties of Materials
Mechanical properties of Materials
• The mechanical properties of materials define the behavior of materials under
the action of external forces called loads.
• They are a measure of strength and lasting characteristics of the material in
service and are of good importance in the design of tools, machines, and
structures.
• The mechanical properties of metals are determined by the range of
usefulness of the metal and establish the service that is expected.
• The mechanical properties of a material are those which affect the
mechanical strength and ability of a material to be molded in suitable shape.
• Mechanical properties are also useful for helping to specify and identify
metals. And the most common properties considered are strength, hardness,
ductility, brittleness, toughness, stiffness, and impact resistance.
 Mechanical properties of Materials
The following are the mechanical properties of materials.
• Strength
• Elasticity
• Plasticity
• Hardness
• Toughness
• Brittleness
• Stiffness
• Ductility
• Malleability
• Cohesion
• Impact strength
• Fatigue
• Creep
 Mechanical properties of Materials
Strength
• Strength is the mechanical property that enables a metal to resist deformation load.
• The strength of a material is its capacity to withstand destruction under the action of external loads.
• The stronger the materials the greater the load it can withstand.
Elasticity
• According to dictionary elasticity is the ability of an object or material to resume its normal shape after
being stretched or compressed.
• When a material has a load applied to it, the load causes the material to deform.
• The elasticity of a material is its power of coming back to its original position after deformation when the
stress or load is released.
• Heat-treated springs, rubber etc are good examples of elastic materials.
Plasticity
• The plasticity of a material is its ability to undergo some permanent deformation without rupture(brittle).
• Plastic deformation will take place only after the elastic range has been exceeded.
Materials such as clay, lead etc are plastic at room temperature, and steel plastic when at bright red-heat.
 Mechanical properties of Materials
Hardness
• The resistance of a material to force penetration or bending is hardness.
• The hardness is the ability of a material to resist scratching, abrasion, cutting or
penetration.
Toughness
• It is the property of a material which enables it to withstand shock or impact.
• Toughness is the opposite condition of brittleness.
• Manganese steel, wrought iron, mild steel etc are examples of toughness materials.
Brittleness
• The brittleness of a property of a material which enables it to withstand permanent
deformation.
• Cast iron, glass are examples of brittle materials.
• They will break rather than bend under shock or impact.
 Mechanical properties of Materials
Stiffness
• It is a mechanical property.
• The stiffness is the resistance of a material to elastic deformation or deflection.
• In stiffness, a material which suffers light deformation under load has a high degree of
stiffness.
• The stiffness of a structure is important in many engineering applications, so the modulus of
elasticity is often one of the primary properties when selecting a material.
Ductility
• The ductility is a property of a material which enables it to be drawn out into a thin wire.
• Mild steel, copper, aluminium are the good examples of a ductile material.
Malleability
• The malleability is a property of a material which permits it to be hammered or rolled into
sheets of other sizes and shapes.
• Aluminium, copper, tin, lead etc are examples of malleable metals.
 Mechanical properties of Materials
Cohesion
• It is a mechanical property.
• The cohesion is a property of a solid body by virtue of which they resist from being broken into a
fragment.
Impact Strength
• The impact strength is the ability of a metal to resist suddenly applied loads.
Fatigue
• The fatigue is the long effect of repeated straining action which causes the strain or break of the material.
• It is the term ‘fatigue’ use to describe the fatigue of material under repeatedly applied forces.

Creep
• The creep is a slow and progressive deformation of a material with time at a constant force.
• The simplest type of creep deformation is viscous flow.
• Some metals are generally exhibiting creep at high temperature, whereas plastic, rubber, and similar
amorphous material are very temperature sensitive to creep.
• The force for a specified rate of strain at constant temperature is called creep strength.
 Steel
Steel is one of the most useful materials in the world. In the simplest context, steel is composed
of iron and carbon, but in actuality, steel isn’t so simple. The concentration of carbon and iron
or the addition of other elements affect steels’ properties and strength, which aids in steel’s
usefulness for an endless variety of e
Steel is grouped into four categories:
• Carbon steel – Carbon steel has a higher concentration of carbon than other types of steel
(up to 2.5% carbon), which adds to carbon steel’s strength. Carbon steel is commonly used to
make construction materials, tools, automotive components, and more.
• Alloy steel – Alloy steel is made by combining carbon steel with one or several alloying
elements, such as titanium, copper, chromium, aluminum, manganese, silicon, and nickel.
This produces specific properties that are not found in standard carbon steel.
• Stainless steel – Stainless steel is a type of steel alloy that contains a minimum of 11%
chromium, which helps the material resist corrosion.
• Tool steel – Tool steel is a type of steel alloy that’s hardness, resistance to abrasion, and
ability to retain shape at increased temperatures make it a popular choice for hand tools and
machine dies.
 Steel
• The steel industry uses two major numbering systems to classify steel grades, the American Iron & Steel Institute (AISI) and Society
of Automotive Engineers (SAE) systems. Both the AISI and SAE systems primarily use four-digit numeric codes to identify a
material’s base carbon or alloy steel; however, some select alloy steels have five-digit codes.
• All carbon steels start with a one (1) in both the SAE & AISI systems. Carbon steels are then further subdivided into four categories
by their underlying properties. The four categories are:
• Plain carbon steel – 10xx series (containing 1.00% Mn maximum)
• Resulfurized carbon steel- 11xx series
• Resulfurized and rephosphorized carbon steel – 12xx series
• Non-resulfurized high-manganese – 15xx series (containing up to 1.65% Mn)
• The first digit on all other alloy steels (under the SAE-AISI system), are classified as follows:
• 2 = Nickel steels.
• 3 = Nickel-chromium steels.
• 4 = Molybdenum steels.
• 5 = Chromium steels.
• 6 = Chromium-vanadium steels.
• 7 = Tungsten-chromium steels.
• 8 = Nickel-chromium-molybdenum steels
• 9 = Silicon-manganese steels and various other SAE grades
• The second digit of a series typically indicates the concentration of the major element in percentiles. The last two digits of a series
indicate the carbon concentration.
 Properties of Steel
• Corrosion resistant
• High tensile strength
• Very durable
• Temperature resistant
• Easy formability and fabrication
• Low-maintenance (long lasting)
• Attractive appearance
• Environmentally friendly (recyclable)
 Alloys of Aluminum
An “alloy” is a blend of different metallic elements, often created to enhance the strength and durability of the material.  An
aluminum alloy typically consists of the latter as the main metal in the blend, often combined with other elements, such as silicon,
tin, manganese, or even copper, tin, and magnesium, depending on the desired application. With the right combination of
elements, aluminum can acquire a lot more strength, and in some cases, it could even outperform steel. Alloys bring the same
benefits of pure aluminum, and they are also relatively cost-effective because they have a lower melting point.
Aluminum Alloy Properties
•Corrosion Resistance: A layer of Aluminum oxide is formed almost instantaneously on the surface of Aluminum, when it is
exposed to air. And this layer has excellent corrosion to resistant. It is less resistant to alkalis but fairly resistant to most acids.
•Density: Aluminum density is around one third of the steel and copper, which makes it one of the largest commercially available
metals.
It is an important structural material which allows an increased payloads or fuel savings for transport industries in particular due
to its high strength to weight ratio.  
•Strength: Aluminum does not have high tensile strength but by the addition of alloying materials such as copper, manganese,
silicon and magnesium can increase the strength of aluminum and it can produce the properties which can be suitable to a
particular applications.Aluminum has advantage over steel because with decreasing temperature while retaining its toughness the
tensile strength increases. On the other hand steel become brittle at low temperature.
•Electrical Conductivity: It has an electrical conductivity which is high enough for use as an electrical conductor.
The conductivity of the usually used conducting alloy is merely around 62% of annealed copper, it’s just one third weight and can
therefore conduct double as much electricity when compared with copper of the similar weight.
•Reflectivity: Aluminum is an excellent reflector of radiant energy, from infra-red to UV. The properties of Aluminum reflectivity
create ideal as an insulating material to guard against the sun’s rays in summer, whereas insulating against heat loss in winter.        
•Thermal Conductivity: As compared to steel the thermal conductivity of Aluminum is about three times greater. Aluminum is
therefore important for both cooling and heating application.
 Magnesium alloys
• Magnesium alloys are well-known for being the lightest structural alloys.They
are made of magnesium, the lightest structural metal, mixed with other metal
elements to improve the physical properties. These elements include
manganese, aluminium, zinc, silicon, copper, zirconium, and rare-earth metals 
• Some of magnesium’s favourable properties include low specific gravity and a
high strength-to-weight ratio. As a result, the material lends itself to a range of
automotive, aerospace, industrial, electronic, biomedical, and commercial
applications.
Key properties of magnesium alloys
• Lightweight
• Low density (two thirds that of aluminum)
• Good high-temperature mechanical properties
• Good to excellent corrosion resistance
 Titanium Alloys 
Titanium Alloys          
• Titanium alloys are highly popular in industries because of their very high tensile strength and
toughness along with their very lightweight and extraordinary corrosion resistance properties.
Titanium alloys are produced by combining pure titanium with other metals or chemical
components. The presence of these different metals and chemical components modifies the physical
properties of titanium alloy. Titanium is relatively powerful on its own — about as strong as steel —
but when combined with other metals and chemical components, it becomes considerably stronger.
On the other hand, titanium alloy has other advantages besides enhanced strength.
What is Titanium Alloy?
• Titanium alloy is a metal or chemical alloy predominantly made of pure titanium with other metals
or chemical elements dispersed. It’s made by combining titanium with other metals and chemical
ingredients precisely. The mixture is allowed to cool once the correct ratio has been attained. In
general, Titanium alloy contains traces of aluminum, niobium, tantalum, molybdenum, vanadium,
zirconium, manganese, iron, nickel, chromium, cobalt, and copper.
Properties
• 1. Higher resistance to plastic deformation 2. Reduced ductility 3. Anisotropic mechanical and
physical properties 4. Higher creep resistance
 Materials Used for Aircraft Manufacturing
• Aluminum is used due to its low density (2.7 g/cm3), high strength properties, good thermal and electric conductivity,
technological effectiveness and high corrosion resistance. But because aluminum loses its strength at high
temperatures, it is not used to the skin surface of an aircraft.

• Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon and can be three times stronger and heavier than aluminum. It is usually used in a
landing gear due to its strength and hardness as well as in the skin surface of aircraft due to its high heat resistance.

• Titanium and its alloys are commonly used in the construction of aircraft due to its high strength properties, high-
temperature resistance and high corrosion resistance compared to steel and aluminum. Despite being expensive,
titanium is used in aircraft construction due to its excellent material properties. It is used in the panel and swivels
wing assemblies, hydraulic systems, and other parts. It is used in the panel and swivels wing assemblies, hydraulic
systems, and other parts.

• composite materials is used in the production of aircraft due to their high tensile strength, high compression
resistance, low weight and high resistance to corrosion. Composite materials are composed of a base material and
resin that strengthens the material as a whole. Composite materials improve fuel efficiency and performance of the
aircraft as well as lessen direct operating costs of aircraft. The most common composite material used is fiberglass
that is made up of glass fibers as the base material and a resin matrix. The disadvantages of using composite
materials, however, include high cost and immediate repair is needed in case of damage. It is also important to avoid
fire when using composite materials because the resin used weakens and causes the release of toxic fumes.
 Unit- 2 Part-II
Ceramics, Glass and its properties and types, tests for aircraft grade glass, tempered
and laminated glasses, plastics, classifications, properties and applications in aircrafts.

Ceramics
A Ceramic is any of the hard, brittle, heat-resistant, and corrosion-resistant materials
created by shaping and firing an inorganic, nonmetallic material, such as clay, at a
high temperature. Today, the term "ceramic" refers to a wider range of materials,
including glass, advanced ceramics, and some cement-based systems. Various types
of ceramics now include various materials developed for use in advanced ceramic
engineering, such as semiconductors and domestic, industrial, and building products.
A ceramic is an inorganic, non-metallic solid mainly based on oxide, nitride, boride, or
carbide that are shaped and then fixed at high temperatures. Ceramic is hard, brittle,
heat-resistant, and corrosion-resistant.
 Classification of Ceramics

Classification of Ceramics
Classification based on the composition
1. Oxide ceramics
• Oxide ceramics contains oxide fibers which include a combination of Zirconium
dioxide, aluminum trioxide, and titanium dioxide. The oxide fibers help ceramics
to withstand oxidation and provide strength and reinforcement.
2. Non-oxide ceramics
• Non-oxide ceramics offer a great replacement to oxide ceramics because oxide
ceramics can't be used in extreme environments and can't bear heavy loads.
• Non-oxide overcomes all these limitations of oxide ceramics because they have
high corrosion resistance, hardness, and oxidation resistance. They even don't
degrade till 2400 Co temperature.
 Classification of Ceramics
3. Composite Ceramics
• Composite ceramics is made up of two or more constituent materials with
different physical or chemicals properties. 
• These materials combine to produce a material having different properties
than individual components. Composite ceramics have ceramics
fibers embedded in the ceramic.
 Classification of Ceramics
Classification based on Applications
Classification of ceramics can be given on how they are used:
1. Structural Ceramics
• Structure ceramics are clay-based (generally) which are pressed into shape
according to our need. They have good insulating properties which can be
altered by changing their density. The denser the ceramic, the lower the
insulating properties.
• Structural ceramics includes bricks, dinner bricks, dinner plates, and statues.
2. Refractory Ceramics
• Ceramics that can hold their shape and strength at high temperatures are
called refractory ceramics. That's why they are used in furnaces and kilns. They
are made using oxide like silicon dioxide, titanium dioxide, zinc oxide, and many
other oxides.
 Classification of Ceramics
3. Electrical Ceramics
• Electrical ceramics or electroceramics are known for their excellent electrical properties.
They have good mechanical, thermal, and electrical properties which make them versatile for
use. The conductivity of electrical ceramics increases when the temperature increases. 
• For example Dielectric ceramics, fast ion conductor ceramics, etc.
4. Magnetic Ceramics
• Magnetic ceramics are oxide materials that show a certain type of permanent
magnification (ferrimagnetism). 
• Magnetic ceramics are made up of ferrites which are crystalline minerals composed of iron
oxide combine with some other metal. Magnetic ceramics are used in a variety of places like
in transformer, telecommunication, and information recording.
5. Abrasives Ceramics
• Abrasives ceramics can be natural or synthetic which are used to grind or cut away other
softer material. They have high hardness, wear-resistance, and high toughness. 
• For example, Diamond, Silicon carbide (SiC), tungsten carbide (WC), etc.
 Properties of Ceramics
Properties of Ceramics
1. Ceramics have high hardness.
2. They are brittle and have poor toughness.
3. They have a high melting point.
4. They have poor electrical and thermal conductivity.
5. They have low ductility.
6. They have a high modulus of elasticity.
7. They have high compression strength.
8. They show optical transparency to a variety of wavelengths.
 Ceramics

Advantages of ceramics
• Most of them have high hardness hence they are used as abrasive powder and cutting tools
• They have high melting point which makes them excellent refractory material
• They are good thermal insulators this is another reason to use them as refractory material
• They are high electric resistivity which makes them suitable to be used an insulator
• They have low mass density which results in lightweight components
• They are generally chemically inert which makes them durable
Disadvantages of ceramics
• They are brittle in nature
• They have almost zero ductility
• They have poor tensile strength
• The show a wide range in the variation of strength, even for the identical specimens
• They are difficult to shape and machine
 Ceramics

Applications of ceramics
• They are used in space industry because of their low weight
• They are used as cutting tools
• They are used as refractory materials
• They are used as thermal insulator
• They are used as electrical insulator
 Glass
Glass is an inorganic solid and non-crystalline material that is transparent in
appearance. Glass is a hard substance which may be transparent or translucent
and brittle. Glasses used in construction purposes and architectural.

Ordinary glass is manufactured by the composition of various substances like

silica, bleaching powder, oxides of alkaline metals, calcium oxide (lime) etc.
These constituents of the glass are transformed into fine micro powder and after
fusing these are melted into the furnaces at moderate temperature and ordinary
glass is prepared by a suitable cooling mechanism of the molten or liquid glass.
Thus ordinary glass is a non-crystalline substance of ultra cooled liquid glass.
 Glass
Types of Glass and their Uses
• Float glass
• Shatterproof glass
• Laminated glass
• Extra clean glass
• Chromatic glass
• Tinted glass
• Toughened glass
• Glass blocks
• Glass wool
• Insulated glazed units
1. Float Glass
• Float glass manufactured from sodium silicate and calcium silicate so, it is also
called as soda-lime glass. It is clear and flat, so it causes glare. Thickness of the
float glass is available from 2mm to 20mm, and its weight range from 6 to 36
kg/m2. The application of float glass includes shop fronts, public places, etc.

2. Shatterproof Glass
• Shatterproof glass is used for windows, skylights, floors, etc. Some type of plastic
polyvinyl butyral is added in its making process. So, it cannot form sharp-edged
pieces when it breaks.
 Glass
3. Laminated Glass
• Laminated glass is the combination of layers of ordinary glass. So, it has more
weight than a normal glass. It has more thickness and is UV proof and
soundproof. These are used for aquariums, bridges, etc.

4. Extra Clean Glass

• Extra clean glass has two unique properties, photocatalytic and hydrophilic.
Because of these properties, it acts as stain proof and gives a beautiful
appearance. Maintenance is also easy.
 Glass
5. Chromatic Glass
• Chromatic glass is used in ICU’s, meeting rooms etc. it can control the
transparent efficiency of glass and protects the interior from daylight. The
chromatic glass may be photochromic which has light sensitive lamination,
thermos-chromatic which has heat sensitive lamination and electrochromic
which has electric lamination over it.

6. Tinted Glass
• Tinted glass is nothing but coloured glass. A colour producing ingredients is
mixed to the normal glass mix to produce coloured glass which does not affect
other properties of glass. Different colour-producing ingredients are tabulated
below:
 Glass
8. Glass Blocks
• Glass block or glass bricks are manufactured from two different halves and they
are pressed and annealed together while melting process of glass. These are
used as architectural purpose in the construction of walls, skylights etc. They
provide aesthetic appearance when light is passed through it.

9. Glass Wool
• Glass wool is made of fibers of glass and acts as an insulating filler. It is fire-
resistant glass.
 Glass
10. Insulated Glazed Units
• Insulated glazed glass units contains a glass is separated into two or three
layers by air or vacuum. They cannot allow heat through it because of air
between the layers and acts as good insulators. These are also called as double
glazed units.
 Properties of Glass
Engineering Properties of Glass
• Transparency
• Strength
• Workability
• Transmittance
• U value
• Recycling property
1. Transparency of Glass
Transparency is the main property of glass which allows the vision of the outside world through it. The transparency of glass can be from both
sides or from one side only. In one side transparency, glass behaves like a mirror from the other side.
2. Strength of Glass
The strength of glass depends on the modulus of rupture value of glass. In general glass is a brittle material but by adding admixtures and
laminates we can make it as more strong.
3. Workability of Glass
A glass can be molded into any shape, or it can be blown during melting. So, workability of glass is a superior property.
4. Transmittance
The visible fraction of light that passing through glass is the property of visible transmittance.
5. U value of Glass
U value represents the amount of heat transferred through glass. If a glass is said to be insulated unit then it should have lower u value.
6. Recycle Property of Glass
Any glass can be 100% recyclable. It can also be used as raw material in construction industry.
 Advantages & Disadvantages of Glass
Advantages
1) A glass can absorb, refracts and transmits 80% of available natural daylight in both
the directions.
2) A glass can be made transparent or translucent, thus it adds extraordinary beauty to
the building.
3) It can be blown, drawn and pressed to any shape and hence it is used for various
purposes.
4) It is dustproof and can be easily cleaned because of smooth and glossy texture
5) Glass does not rust so it does not degrade by time with chemicals and surroundings.

Disadvantages
1) A glass is unsafe for earthquake proven area.
2) Use of glass in a building enhances the cost of security because of the transparency
3) The glass is made of very rigid and easily breakable material so when it is subjected
to stress, it breaks without strain
4) Broken pieces of glass are very sharp and can hurt badly
 Tempered Glass
Tempered glass is a form of high-strength glass that is formed by heating ordinary glass to
680 degree Celsius and rapidly cooling it. This process of tempering and instant quenching
creates tension and compression on opposite glass faces, thereby increasing its strength
significantly. A high-grade tempered glass is often four to five times stronger than ordinary
glass, all the while retaining its light transmission and energy properties. Tempered glass,
if broken, shatters into small powder-like blunt pieces which are not at all injurious.
There are many benefits that tempered glass has over standard annealed glass. For
example, it can withstand more heat and is five times stronger. Standard annealed glass is
prone to thermal breakage caused by direct heat sources like sunlight. 
Some benefits of tempered glass include:
• Offering wind resistance
• Has greater tensile strength, so it may bend easily without breaking 
• Glass shatters into rounded cubes instead of dangerous point shards
Tempered glass can be found in all types of home applications, such as shower doors,
front doors, stovetops, refrigerators, microwaves, and even coffee tables. 
Tempered Glass
 Laminated Glass
• Laminated glass is created with two pieces of tempered or regular glass sandwiched between a
plastic resin or polyvinyl butyral (PVB). Unlike tempered glass, it won't shatter into pieces
when breakage occurs. That's because the broken glass will stick onto the plastic instead of
falling onto the floor.
• The fractured glass stays inside the frame rather than shattering into jagged pieces. 

This glass type offers a few benefits such as: 

• It aids in the screening or protection of UV radiation.

• Soundproof your windows so that loud noises don't enter your home.
• The glass can be made transparent or tinted.
Laminated glass is an excellent choice for those who want to maximize security in their home.
The extra layer of PVB or plastic between the panes produces a barrier that is hard to break
through. Thus, the laminated glass protects your home against harsh weather conditions and
intruders. However, the downside of laminated glass is that it's more expensive than tempered
glass.
 Laminated Glass
Usage of Laminated Glass
• Due to its incredibly high strength value, laminated glass is used in
bulletproofing. It is employed in high-profile buildings to provide enhanced
security and safety. Common applications of laminated glass are as follows:
• Glass Facades
• Windows and Doors
• Glass Floors
• Skylights Glazing
• Glass Walls
• Windshield
 Plastics
Plastic is a material consisting of any of a wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic
organic compounds that are malleable and therefore can be molded into solid objects.
The plasticity or the state of the malleability of material during the manufacturing process
enables it to be cast, pressed or extruded into various shapes, such as films, fibre, plate,
tube, bottles, boxes, among many other such examples. 
Plastics are categorized into two; commodity plastics or standard plastics and engineering
plastics.
Commodity Plastics:
• Below are the various types of commodity plastics:
• Polyamides (PA) or nylons – it is used as fibers, toothbrush bristles, tubing, fishing line,
and low strength machine parts like engine parts or gun frames.
• Polycarbonate (PC) – polycarbonate is used to produce compact discs, riot shields,
traffic lights, eyeglasses, security windows, lenses, etc.
• Polyester (PES) – it’s widely used in fashion and textile as fibers and textiles.
 Plastics
• Polyethylene (PE) – these are inexpensive types of plastics used for making supermarket
bags and plastic bottles. It’s of three types:
• High-density polyethylene (HDPE) – milk jugs, molded plastic case, and detergent bottles
are made with this type.
• Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) – it’s used for making outdoor furniture, siding, floor
tiles, shower curtains, clamshell packaging, etc.
• Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) – used as carbonated drinks bottles, peanut butter jars,
microwavable packaging, plastic film, etc.
• Polypropylene (PP) – it’s used as bottle caps, yogurt containers, drinking straws, appliances,
plastic pressure pipe systems, car bumpers, etc.
• Polystyrene (PS) – it is widely used for producing food containers, foam peanuts, disposable
cups, plastic tableware, plates, cutlery, compact-disc, cassette boxes, etc.
• High impact polystyrene (HIPS) – is used as food packaging and vending cups.
• Polyurethane (PU) – these types of plastics are used to produce thermal insulation forms,
surface coatings, printing rollers, cushioning foams, etc.
 Plastics
• Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) – used as electrical wire/cable insulation, plumbing pipes, and guttering,
window frame, shower curtains, flooring, etc.
• Polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC) – these plastic types are widely used for food packaging.
• Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) – it’s used in cases of electronic equipment like computer
monitors, keyboards, printers, etc., and drainage pipes.
Specialist plastics or engineering plastics
• Below are the various types of engineering plastics, which can also be called high-performance
plastics.
• Polyepoxide – also known as epoxy used as an adhesive, potting agent for electrical parts. It is also
used as a matrix for a composite material with hardeners including amine, amide, and boron
trifluoride.
• Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) – also known as acrylic.
• Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) – also known as Teflon. Has good heat resistance, low-friction coatings.
It’s used in plumber’s tape and water slides and non-stick surfaces for frying pans.
• Phenolics or phenol-formaldehyde (PF) – these types of polymer are relatively heat resistant, high
modulus, and good fire-resistant. This is why they are often used for insulating parts in an electrical
joint. it is also used in paper laminated products like Formica, and thermal insulation foams.
 Applications in Aerospace Industry
Plastics
• One place in which plastics play a key role in the development and manufacturing of
modern aircraft is in the overhead luggage storage compartment. These compartments
require durable materials because they are subjected to quite a bit of strain in normal use.
Yet, they also need to be lightweight, because their presence does not add to the
aerodynamics or operation of the aircraft. Plastics like Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene
(ABS) are excellent materials for these bins.
• Polychlorotrifluoroethylene (PCTFE): PCTFE is a fluorochemical plastic with an optimal
blend of physical properties, mechanical properties, fire and chemical resistance, and very
low moisture absorption. These properties make PCTFE great material for components that
are used outside or in corrosive environments. Mainly it has been using in wings of
airplane or jets.
Glass
• Glass is used in aircraft to build windshield and window panes, canopies, panels for cabin
interiors, mirrors for lavatories, interior and exterior light-emitting diode (LED) lighting
solutions, protections for sensors and instrumentation.
 Applications in Aerospace Industry
Aluminium Alloys
• Al-based alloys, specially designed alloys make it possible for the aircraft industry to produce high-
strength parts for jet engines and airframes where high pressure, temperature and vibration are
greatly considered during their design and manufacturing.
• Aircraft manufacturers prefer to use high-strength aluminium alloys (primarily alloy 7075) to
strengthen aluminium aircraft structures. Alloy 7075 has copper, magnesium and zinc added for extra
strength.
Ceramics
• In aerospace applications, ceramics are primarily found in engine and exhaust systems, thermal
protection shields, and structures for ultra-high-speed flying objects. Ceramics and ceramic matrix
composites that can withstand temperatures as high as 1,600°C are used to manufacture lightweight
turbine components that require less cooling air, such as vanes, blades, nozzles, and combustion
liners, and parts for the exhaust system that enhance acoustic attenuation and have a long life thanks
to their abrasion and corrosion resistance.
• Other applications of ceramics in the aerospace industry include brakes, bearings, seals, and other
wear resistant components; armor for helicopters; electronic thermal management structures;
lightweight optical components (e.g., silicon carbide mirrors);  radiators (i.e., cooling systems) for
space vehicles; and windshield coatings.
 Plastics

Properties of Plastic
• Strong and ductile.
• Poor conductors of heat and electricity.
• Easily moulded into different shapes and size.
• Resist corrosion and are resistant to many chemicals.
 Plastics
Advantages:
• Plastics are highly flexible and cheaper in comparison to metals.
• The manufacturing process of plastic parts is budget-friendly.
• Plastics are highly durable and can last for a longer time.
• The specific gravity of plastic is much lower, which makes it a lightweight material.
• The manufacturing process of plastic is a lot faster than metals.
Disadvantages:
• The natural decomposition of plastics will last from 400 to 1000 years and, few types of plastics are non-
degradable.
• Plastic materials affect water bodies like oceans, seas, lakes etc., killing marine animals.
• Many animals are consuming plastic products and dying on a daily basis. About 90% of all seabirds have
plastic in their stomachs.
• Plastic is widely popular in food packaging, but research studies show that eating food out of plastic
containers may cause cancer.
• Both the production and recycling of plastics produce harmful gases and residues that pollute the air,
water and soil.