UNIT - I

Definition – Need – General Characteristics , Matrices – Polymer, Metal, Carbon and Ceramic
Matrices, Reinforcement – Types – fibers, whiskers and particles, Reinforcement materials,
Selection, advantages and limitations.
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OVERVIEW
 There are more than 50,000 materials available to engineers for the design and manufacturing of
products for various applications.
 These materials range from ordinary materials (e.g., copper, cast iron, brass), which have been
available for several hundred years, to the more recently developed, advanced materials (e.g.,
composites, ceramics, and high-performance steels).
 Due to the wide choice of materials, today’s engineers are posed with a big challenge for the right
selection of a material and the right selection of a manufacturing process for an application.
 It is difficult to study all of these materials individually; therefore, a broad classification is necessary
for simplification and characterization.
 These materials, depending on their major characteristics (e.g., stiffness, strength, density, and
melting temperature), can be broadly divided into four main categories: (1) metals, (2) plastics, (3)
ceramics, and (4) composites.

METALS
 Metals have been the dominating materials in the past for structural applications. They provide the
largest design and processing history to the engineers. The common metals are iron, aluminum,
copper, magnesium, zinc, lead, nickel, and titanium.
 In structural applications, alloys are more frequently used than pure metals. Alloys are formed by
mixing different materials, sometimes including nonmetallic elements. Alloys offer better properties
than pure metals.
 For example, cast iron is brittle and easy to corrode, but the addition of less than 1% carbon in iron
makes it tougher, and the addition of chromium makes it corrosion-resistant. Through the principle
of alloying, thousands of new metals are created.
 Metals are, in general, heavy as compared to plastics and composites. Only aluminum, magnesium,
and beryllium provide densities close to plastics.
 Steel is 4 to 7 times heavier than plastic materials; aluminum is 1.2 to 2 times heavier than plastics.
Metals generally require several machining operations to obtain the final product. Metals have high
stiffness, strength, thermal stability, and thermal and electrical conductivity.
 Due to their higher temperature resistance than plastics, they can be used for applications with
higher service temperature requirements.

PLASTICS
 Plastics have become the most common engineering materials over the past decade. In the past 5
years, the production of plastics on a volume basis has exceeded steel production.
 Due to their light weight, easy processability, and corrosion resistance, plastics are widely used for
automobile parts, aerospace components, and consumer goods.
 Plastics can be purchased in the form of sheets, rods, bars, powders, pellets, and granules. With
the help of a manufacturing process, plastics can be formed into near-net-shape or net-shape parts.
They can provide high surface finish and therefore eliminate several machining operations. This
feature provides the production of low-cost parts.
 Plastics are not used for high-temperature applications because of their poor thermal stability. In
general, the operating temperature for plastics is less than 100°C.
 Some plastics can take service temperature in the range of 100 to 200°C without a significant
decrease in the performance. Plastics have lower melting temperatures than metals and therefore
they are easy to process.

CERAMICS
 Ceramics have strong covalent bonds and therefore provide great thermal stability and high
hardness. They are the most rigid of all materials.
 The major distinguishing characteristic of ceramics as compared to metals is that they possess
almost no ductility. They fail in brittle fashion. Ceramics have the highest melting points of
engineering materials.
 They are generally used for high-temperature and high-wear applications and are resistant to most
forms of chemical attack. Ceramics cannot be processed by common metallurgical techniques and
require high-temperature equipment for fabrication.
 Due to their high hardness, ceramics are difficult to machine and therefore require net-shape
forming to final shape. Ceramics require expensive cutting tools, such as carbide and diamond
tools.

COMPOSITES
 Composite materials have been utilized to solve technological problems for a long time but only in
the 1960s did these materials start capturing the attention of industries with the introduction of
polymeric-based composites.
 Since then, composite materials have become common engineering materials and are designed
and manufactured for various applications including automotive components, sporting goods,
aerospace parts, consumer goods, and in the marine and oil industries.
 The growth in composite usage also came about because of increased awareness regarding
product performance and increased competition in the global market for lightweight components.
 Among all materials, composite materials have the potential to replace widely used steel and
aluminum, and many times with better performance.
 Replacing steel components with composite components can save 60 to 80% in component weight,
and 20 to 50% weight by replacing aluminum parts. Today, it appears that composites are the
materials of choice for many engineering applications.
INTRODUCTION

 A composite material can be defined as a combination of two or more materials that results in better
properties than those of the individual components used alone.
 In contrast to metallic alloys, each material retains its separate chemical, physical, and mechanical
properties. The two constituents are reinforcement and a matrix.
 The main advantages of composite materials are their high strength and stiffness, combined with
low density, when compared with bulk materials, allowing for a weight reduction in the finished part.

Composite materials
 The term “composite materials” broadly refers to a material system which is composed of a discrete
constituent (the reinforcement) distributed in continuous phase (the matrix) and which derives its
distinguishing characteristics from the properties of its constituents, from the geometry and
architecture of the constituent and from the properties of the boundaries (interface) between
different constituent (Surappa, 2003).
 A composite material consists of two or more chemically distinct macro constituents, separated by a
distinct interface. Composite material has properties (or) characteristics that could not be obtained
from any one material.
 A material is considered composite only if the constituent material (or) phases has significantly
different properties and the resulting combination give a significant change in the properties.
 The field of composite materials technology as a whole, which includes metal matrix composites,
has been and is growing so rapidly that no single individual can be aware of all its developments,
not to mention being able to assess the relative merits of each endeavor and place.

Definition of Composite Materials

 A composite is a structural material that consists of two or more combined constituents that are
combined at a macroscopic level and are not soluble in each other.
Matrix phase :Polymers, Metals, Ceramics
Reinforcing phase: Fibers, particles, or Flakes

WHAT IS A COMPOSITE MATERIAL?

 The word composite in the term composite material signifies that two or more materials are
combined on a macroscopic scale to form a useful third material.
 The key is the macroscopic examination of a material wherein the components can be identified by
the naked eye.
 Different materials can be combined on a microscopic scale, such as in alloying of metals, but the
resulting material is for all practical purposes, macroscopically homogeneous i.e., the components
cannot be distinguished by the naked eye and essentially act together.
 The advantage of composite materials is that, if well designed, they usually exhibit the best qualities
of their components or constituents and often some qualities that neither constituent possesses.

Some of the properties that can be improved by forming a composite material are
 Strength  Wear resistance
 Fatigue life  Thermal conductivity
 Stiffness  Attractiveness
 Temperature-dependent behavior  Acoustical insulation
 Corrosion resistance  Weight
 Thermal insulation

Characteristics of Composite Materials

 High specific strength and modulus
 High fatigue strength and fatigue damage tolerance
 Anisotropic designable or tailorable materials for both microstructure
 Properties - Production of both material and structure or component in a single operation:
 Manufacturing flexible,
 net-shape
 complex geometry
 Corrosion resistance
 durable
 Other unique functional properties - damping, low CTE (coefficient of thermal expansion)

Classification Composite Materials

Four commonly accepted types of composite materials are:
1. Fibrous composite materials that consist of fibers in a matrix
2. Laminated composite materials that consist of layers of various materials
3. Particulate composite materials that are composed of particles in a matrix
4. Combinations of some or all of the first three types

Classification:
Composite materials are commonly classified at following two distinct levels.
 The first level of classification is usually made with respect to the matrix constituent. The major
composite classes include Organic Matrix Composites (OMCs), Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs)
and Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs).
 The term organic matrix composite is generally assumed to include two classes of composites,
namely Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs) and carbon matrix composites commonly referred to as
carbon-carbon composites.
 The second level of classification refers to the reinforcement form - fibre reinforced composites,
laminar composites and particulate composites. Fibre Reinforced composites (FRP) can be further
divided into those containing discontinuous or continuous fibres.
 Fibre Reinforced Composites are composed of fibres embedded in matrix material. Such a
composite is considered to be a discontinuous fibre or short fibre composite if its properties vary
with fibre length.
 On the other hand, when the length of the fibre is such that any further increase in length does not
further increase, the elastic modulus of the composite, the composite is considered to be continuous
fibre reinforced.
 Fibres are small in diameter and when pushed axially, they bend easily although they have very
good tensile properties. These fibres must be supported to keep individual fibres from bending and
buckling.
 Laminar Composites are composed of layers of materials held together by matrix. Sandwich
structures fall under this category.
 Particulate Composites are composed of particles distributed or embedded in a matrix body. The
particles may be flakes or in powder form. Concrete and wood particle boards are examples of this
category.

TYPES OF MATRIX MATERIALS

1. Polymers:
Thermoplastic: Soften upon heating and can be reshaped with heat& pressure.
Thermosetting: become cross linked during fabrication & do not soften upon reheating.
2. Metals
3. Ceramics
4. Carbon and Graphite’s materials
1. POLYMER
Thermoplastics
Polypropylene, Polyvinylchloride (PVC), Nylon, Polyurethane, Poly-ether-etherketone (PEEK), Poly
Phenylenesulfide (PPS), Polysulpone
 Higher toughness
 High-volume
 Low-cost processing
 Temperature range ≥ 225ºC

Thermoplastics
Thermoplastics are increasingly used over thermosets because of the following reasons:
Processing is faster than thermoset composites since no curing reaction is required. Thermoplastic
composites require only heating, shaping and cooling.
Better properties:
 High toughness (delamination résistance) and damage tolerance
 low moisture absorption
 chemical resistance
 They have low toxity.
 Cost is high

THERMOSETS
(Polyesters, Epoxies, Polyimides and Other resins)

Polyesters:
 Low cost
 Good mechanical strength
 Good mechanical strength
 Low viscosity and versatility
 Good electrical properties
 Good heat resistance
 Cold and hot molding
 Curingtemperatureis120°C
Epoxy:
Epoxy resins are widely used for most advanced composites.
Advantages:
 Low shrinkage during curing
 High strength and flexibility
 Adjustable curing range
 Better adhesion between fibre and matrix
 Better electrical properties
 Resistance to chemicals and solvent
Disadvantages:
 Somewhat toxic in nature
 Limitedtemperatureapplicationrangeupto175°C
 Moisture absorption affecting dimensional properties
 High thermal coefficient of expansion
 High thermal coefficient of expansion
 Slow curing

Polyimides
 Excellent mechanical strength
 Excellent strength retention for long term in 260-315°C (500-600°F) range and short term in 370°C
(700°F) range
 Excellent electrical properties
 Good fire resistance and low smoke emission
 Hot molding under pressure and Hot molding under pressure and
 Curing temperatureis175°C (350°F) and 315°

Problems with using polymer matrix materials:

 Limited temperature range
 Susceptibility to environmental degradation due to moisture, radiation, atomic oxygen (in space)
 Low transverse strength
 High residual stress due to large mismatch in coefficients of thermal expansion both fiber and matrix
 Polymer matrix cannot be used near or above the glass transition temperature
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2. METALS
(Aluminum, Titanium and Copper)
 Higher use temperature range
Aluminum matrix composite – use temperature range above 300ºC and titanium at 800ºC.
 Higher transfer strength, toughness (in contrast with brittle behavior of polymers and ceramics)
 The absence of moisture & high thermal conductivity(copper)
Disadvantages:
 Heavier
 More susceptible to interface degradation at the fiber/matrix interface and to corrosion.
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3. CERAMICS
(Carbon, Silicon carbide and Silicon nitride)
 Ceramic have use very high temperature range >2000ºC
 High elastic modulus
 Low density
Disadvantages:
 Brittleness
 Susceptible to flow
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4. CARBON
Carbon fibres in carbon matrix – carbon/ carbon composites used under extreme mechanical and thermal
loads (space applications)
Advantages:
 Low specific weight
 High heat absorption capacity
 Resistance to thermal shock
 High resistance to damage
 Exceptional frictional properties at high energy levels
 Resistance to high temperatures
 Chemical inertness
 Low coefficient of thermal
 Expansion (excellent dimensional stability)

Disadvantages:
 Low resistance to oxidation above 500°C
 High cost of materials and manufacturing

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

 POLYMER MATRIX MATERIALS
 Polymers make ideal materials as they can be processed easily, possess lightweight, and desirable
mechanical properties. It follows, therefore, that high temperature resins are extensively used in
aeronautical applications.
 Two main kinds of polymers are thermosets and thermoplastics.
 Thermosets have qualities such as a well-bonded three-dimensional molecular structure after curing.
They decompose instead of melting on hardening.
 Merely changing the basic composition of the resin is enough to alter the conditions suitably for curing
and determine its other characteristics.
 They can be retained in a partially cured condition too over prolonged periods of time, rendering
Thermosets very flexible.
 Thus, they are most suited as matrix bases for advanced conditions fiber reinforced composites.
 Thermosets find wide ranging applications in the chopped fiber composites form particularly when a
premixed or moulding compound with fibers of specific quality and aspect ratio happens to be starting
material as in epoxy, polymer and phenolic polyamide resins.
 Thermoplastics have one- or two-dimensional molecular structure and they tend to at an elevated
temperature and show exaggerated melting point.
 Another advantage is that the process of softening at elevated temperatures can reversed to regain its
properties during cooling, facilitating applications of conventional compress techniques to mould the
compounds.
 Resins reinforced with thermoplastics now comprised an emerging group of composites. The theme of
most experiments in this area to improve the base properties of the resins and extract the greatest
functional advantages from them in new avenues, including attempts to replace metals in die-casting
processes.
 In crystalline thermoplastics, the reinforcement affects the morphology to a considerable extent,
prompting the reinforcement to empower nucleation.
 Whenever crystalline or amorphous, these resins possess the facility to alter their creep over an
extensive range of temperature.
 But this range includes the point at which the usage of resins is constrained, and the reinforcement in
such systems can increase the failure load as well as creep resistance.
 Figure shows kinds of thermoplastics.

 A small quantum of shrinkage and the tendency of the shape to retain its original form are also to be
accounted for. But reinforcements can change this condition too.
 The advantage of thermoplastics systems over thermosets are that there are no chemical reactions
involved, which often result in the release of gases or heat.
 Manufacturing is limited by the time required for heating, shaping and cooling the structures.
 Thermoplastics resins are sold as moulding compounds. Fiber reinforcement is apt for these resins.
Since the fibers are randomly dispersed, the reinforcement will be almost isotropic. However, when
subjected to moulding processes, they can be aligned directionally.
 There are a few options to increase heat resistance in thermoplastics. Addition of fillers raises the heat
resistance. But all thermoplastic composites tend loose their strength at elevated temperatures.
 However, their redeeming qualities like rigidity, toughness and ability to repudiate creep, place
thermoplastics in the important composite materials bracket. They are used in automotive control
panels, electronic products encasement etc.
 Newer developments augur the broadening of the scope of applications of thermoplastics. Huge sheets
of reinforced thermoplastics are now available and they only require sampling and heating to be
moulded into the required shapes.
 This has facilitated easy fabrication of bulky components, doing away with the more cumbersome
moulding compounds.
 Thermosets are the most popular of the fiber composite matrices without which, research and
development in structural engineering field could get truncated.
 Aerospace components, automobile parts, defense systems etc., use a great deal of this type of fiber
composites.
 Epoxy matrix materials are used in printed circuit boards and similar areas. Figure shows some kinds of
thermosets.

 Direct condensation polymerization followed by rearrangement reactions to form heterocyclic entities is

the method generally used to produce thermoset resins.
 Water, a product of the reaction, in both methods, hinders production of void-free composites. These
voids have a negative effect on properties of the composites in terms of strength and dielectric
properties.
 Polyesters phenolic and Epoxies are the two important classes of thermoset resins. Epoxy resins are
widely used in filament-wound composites and are suitable for moulding prepress.
 They are reasonably stable to chemical attacks and are excellent adherents having slow shrinkage
during curing and no emission of volatile gases. These advantages, however, make the use of epoxies
rather expensive.
 Also, they cannot be expected beyond a temperature of 140ºC. Their use in high technology areas
where service temperatures are higher, as a result, is ruled out.
 Polyester resins on the other hand are quite easily accessible, cheap and find use in a wide range of
fields.
 Liquid polyesters are stored at room temperature for months, sometimes for years and the mere addition
of a catalyst can cure the matrix material within a short time.
 They are used in automobile and structural applications. The cured polyester is usually rigid or flexible
as the case may be and transparent.
 Polyesters withstand the variations of environment and stable against chemicals. Depending on the
formulation of the resin or service requirement of application, they can be used up to about 75ºC or
higher.
 Other advantages of polyesters include easy compatibility with few glass fibers and can be used with
verify of reinforced plastic accounted.
 Aromatic Polyamides are the most sought after candidates as the matrices of advanced fiber
composites for structural applications demanding long duration exposure for continuous service at
around 200-250ºC

METAL MATRIX MATERIALS

 Metal matrix composites, at present though generating a wide interest in research fraternity, are not as
widely in use as their plastic counterparts.
 High strength, fracture toughness and stiffness are offered by metal matrices than those offered by their
polymer counterparts.
 They can withstand elevated temperature in corrosive environment than polymer composites. Most
metals and alloys could be used as matrices and they require reinforcement materials which need to be
stable over a range of temperature and non-reactive too.
 However the guiding aspect for the choice depends essentially on the matrix material. Light metals form
the matrix for temperature application and the reinforcements in addition to the aforementioned reasons
are characterized by high moduli.
 Most metals and alloys make good matrices. However, practically, the choices for low temperature
applications are not many. Only light metals are responsive, with their low density proving an advantage.
 Titanium, Aluminium and magnesium are the popular matrix metals currently in vogue, which are
particularly useful for aircraft applications.
 If metallic matrix materials have to offer high strength, they require high modulus reinforcements. The
strength-to-weight ratios of resulting composites can be higher than most alloys.
 The melting point, physical and mechanical properties of the composite at various temperatures
determine the service temperature of composites.
 Most metals, ceramics and compounds can be used with matrices of low melting point alloys.
 The choice of reinforcements becomes more stunted with increase in the melting temperature of matrix
materials.

CERAMIC MATRIX MATERIALS

 Ceramics can be described as solid materials which exhibit very strong ionic bonding in general and in
few cases covalent bonding.
 High melting points, good corrosion resistance, stability at elevated temperatures and high compressive
strength, render ceramic-based matrix materials a favourite for applications requiring a structural
material that doesn’t give way at temperatures above 1500ºC.
 Naturally, ceramic matrices are the obvious choice for high temperature applications.
 High modulus of elasticity and low tensile strain, which most ceramics possess, have combined to cause
the failure of attempts to add reinforcements to obtain strength improvement.
 This is because at the stress levels at which ceramics rupture, there is insufficient elongation of the
matrix which keeps composite from transferring an effective quantum of load to the reinforcement and
the composite may fail unless the percentage of fiber volume is high enough.
 A material is reinforcement to utilize the higher tensile strength of the fiber, to produce an increase in
load bearing capacity of the matrix.
 Addition of high-strength fiber to a weaker ceramic has not always been successful and often the
resultant composite has proved to be weaker.
 The use of reinforcement with high modulus of elasticity may take care of the problem to some extent
and presents pre-stressing of the fiber in the ceramic matrix is being increasingly resorted to as an
option.
 This carbon-carbon composite is fabricated through compaction of carbon or multiple impregnations of
porous frames with liquid carboniser precursors and subsequent pyrolization.
 They can also be manufactured through chemical vapour deposition of pyrolytic carbon.
 Carbon-carbon composites are not be applied in elevated temperatures, as many composites have
proved to be far superior at these temperatures.
 However, their capacity to retain their properties at room temperature as well as at temperature in the
range of 2400ºC and their dimensional stability make them the oblivious choice in a garnut of
applications related to aeronautics, military, industry and space.
 Components, that are exposed to higher temperature and on which the demands for high standard
performance are many, are most likely to have carbon-carbon composites used in them.

GLASS MATRICES
 In comparison to ceramics and even considered on their own merit, glass matrices are found to be more
reinforcement-friendly. The various manufacturing methods of polymers can be used for glass matrices.
 Glasses are meant to improve upon performance of several applications. Glass matrix composite with
high strength and modulus can be obtained and they can be maintained upto temperature of the order of
650ºC.
 Composites with glass matrices are considered superior in dimensions to polymer or metal system, due
to the low thermal expansion behaviour.
 This property allows fabrication of many components in intricate shapes and their tribological characters
are considered very special.
 Since the elastic modulus of glass is far lower than of any prospective reinforcement materials,
application of stress usually results in high elasticity modulus fiber that the tensile strength of the
composite its considerably enhanced than that of the constituents, which is not case in ceramic
matrices.

REINFORCEMENTS
 Reinforcements for the composites can be fibers, fabrics particles or whiskers.
 Fibers are essentially characterized by one very long axis with other two axes either often circular or
near circular. Particles have no preferred orientation and so does their shape.
 Whiskers have a preferred shape but are small both in diameter and length as compared to fibers.
Figure shows types of reinforcements in composites.

 Reinforcing constituents in composites, as the word indicates, provide the strength that makes the
composite what it is.
 But they also serve certain additional purposes of heat resistance or conduction, resistance to corrosion
and provide rigidity.
 Reinforcement can be made to perform all or one of these functions as per the requirements.
 A reinforcement that embellishes the matrix strength must be stronger and stiffer than the matrix and
capable of changing failure mechanism to the advantage of the composite.
 This means that the ductility should be minimum or even nil the composite must behave as brittle as
possible.

Fiber Reinforcement
 Fibers are the important class of reinforcements, as they satisfy the desired conditions and transfer
strength to the matrix constituent influencing and enhancing their properties as desired.
 Glass fibers are the earliest known fibers used to reinforce materials. Ceramic and metal fibers were
subsequently found out and put to extensive use, to render composites stiffer more resistant to heat.
 Fibers fall short of ideal performance due to several factors. The performance of a fiber composite is
judged by its length, shape, and orientation, composition of the fibers and the mechanical properties of
the matrix.
 The orientation of the fiber in the matrix is an indication of the strength of the composite and the strength
is greatest along the longitudinal directional of fiber.
 This doesn’t mean the longitudinal fibers can take the same quantum of load irrespective of the direction
in which it is applied.
 Optimum performance from longitudinal fibers can be obtained if the load is applied along its direction.
The slightest shift in the angle of loading may drastically reduce the strength of the composite.
 Unidirectional loading is found in few structures and hence it is prudent to give a mix of orientations for
fibers in composites particularly where the load is expected to be the heaviest.
 Monolayer tapes consisting of continuous or discontinuous fibers can be oriented unidirectional stacked
into plies containing layers of filaments also oriented in the same direction.
 More complicated orientations are possible too and nowadays, computers are used to make projections
of such variations to suit specific needs.
 In short, in planar composites, strength can be changed from unidirectional fiber oriented composites
that result in composites with nearly isotropic properties.
 There are several methods of random fiber orientations, which in a two-dimensional one, yield
composites with one-third the strength of an unidirectional fiber-stressed composite, in the direction of
fibers.
 In a 3-dimension, it would result in a composite with a comparable ratio, about less than one-fifth.
 In very strong matrices, moduli and strengths have not been observed. Application of the strength of the
composites with such matrices and several orientations is also possible.
 The longitudinal strength can be calculated on the basis of the assumption that fibers have been
reduced to their effective strength on approximation value in composites with strong matrices and non-
longitudinally orientated fibers.
 It goes without saying that fiber composites may be constructed with either continuous or short fibers.
Experience has shown that continuous fibers (or filaments) exhibit better orientation, although it does not
reflect in their performance.
 Fibers have a high aspect ratio, i.e., their lengths being several times greater than their effective
diameters.
 This is the reason why filaments are manufactured using continuous process. This finished filaments.
 Mass production of filaments is well known and they match with several matrices in different ways like
winding, twisting, weaving and knitting, which exhibit the characteristics of a fabric.
 Since they have low densities and high strengths, the fiber lengths in filaments or other fibers yield
considerable influence on the mechanical properties as well as the response of composites to
processing and procedures.
 Shorter fibers with proper orientation composites that use glass, ceramic or multi-purpose fibers can be
endowed with considerably higher strength than those that use continuous fibers. Short fibers are also
known to their theoretical strength.
 The continuous fiber constituent of a composite is often joined by the filament winding process in which
the matrix impregnated fiber wrapped around a mandrel shaped like the part over which the composite
is to be placed, and equitable load distribution and favorable orientation of the fiber is possible in the
finished product.
 However, winding is mostly confined to fabrication of bodies of revolution and the occasional irregular,
flat surface.
 Short-length fibers incorporated by the open- or close-mould process are found to be less efficient,
although the input costs are considerably lower than filament winding.
 Most fibers in use currently are solids which are easy to produce and handle, having a circular cross-
section, although a few non-conventional shaped and hollow fibers show signs of capabilities that can
improve the mechanical qualities of the composites.
 Given the fact that the vast difference in length and effective diameter of the fiber are assets to a fiber
composite, it follows that greater strength in the fiber can be achieved by smaller diameters due to
minimization or total elimination of surface of surface defects.
 After flat-thin filaments came into vogue, fibers rectangular cross sections have provided new options for
applications in high strength structures.
 Owing to their shapes, these fibers provide perfect packing, while hollow fibers show better structural
efficiency in composites that are desired for their stiffness and compressive strengths.
 In hollow fibers, the transverse compressive strength is lower than that of a solid fiber composite
whenever the hollow portion is more than half the total fiber diameter. However, they are not easy to
handle and fabricate.
MULTIPHASE FIBERS
 Spoilable filaments made by chemical vapour deposition processes are usually the multiphase variety
and they usually comprise materials like boron, silicon and their carbides formed on surface of a very
fine filament substrate like carbon or tungsten.
 They are usually good for high temperature applications, due to their reduced reaction with higher
melting temperature of metals than graphite and other metallic fibers. Boron filaments are sought after
for structural and intermediate-temperature composites.
 A poly-phase fiber is a core-sheath fiber consisting of a poly-crystalline core.

WHISKERS
 Single crystals grown with nearly zero defects are termed whiskers. They are usually discontinuous and
short fibers of different cross sections made from several materials like graphite, silicon carbide, copper,
iron etc. Typical lengths are in 3 to 55 N.M. ranges.
 Whiskers differ from particles in that, whiskers have a definite length to width ratio greater than one.
Whiskers can have extraordinary strengths up to 7000 MPa.
 Whiskers were grown quite incidentally in laboratories for the first time, while nature has some
geological structures that can be described as whiskers.
 Initially, their usefulness was overlooked as they were dismissed as incidental by-products of other
structure.
 However, study on crystal structures and growth in metals sparked off an interest in them, and also the
study of defects that affect the strength of materials, they came to be incorporated in composites using
several methods, including power metallurgy and slip-casting techniques.
 Metal-whisker combination, strengthening the system at high temperatures, has been demonstrated at
the laboratory level.
 Early research has shown that whisker strength varies inversely with effective diameter. When whiskers
were embedded in matrices, whiskers of diameter up to 2 to 10μm yielded fairly good composites.

LAMINAR COMPOSITES
 Laminar composites are found in as many combinations as the number of materials. They can be
described as materials comprising of layers of materials bonded together.
 These may be of several layers of two or more metal materials occurring alternately or in a determined
order more than once, and in as many numbers as required for a specific purpose.
 Clad and sandwich laminates have many areas as it ought to be, although they are known to follow the
rule of mixtures from the modulus and strength point of view. Other intrinsic values pertaining to metal-
matrix, metal-reinforced composites are also fairly well known.
 Powder metallurgical processes like roll bonding, hot pressing, diffusion bonding, brazing and so on can
be employed for the fabrication of different alloys of sheet, foil, powder or sprayed materials.
 Foils and sheets are also made to exhibit high percentages of which they are put. For instance, a strong
sheet may use over 92% in laminar structure, while it is difficult to make fibers of such compositions.
Fiber laminates cannot over 75% strong fibers.
 The main functional types of metal-metal laminates that do not possess high strength or stiffness are
single layered ones that endow the composites with special properties, apart from being cost-effective.
They are usually made by pre-coating or cladding methods.
 Pre-coated metals are formed by forming by forming a layer on a substrate, in the form of a thin
continuous film.
 This is achieved by hot dipping and occasionally by chemical plating and electroplating. Clad metals are
found to be suitable for more intensive environments where denser faces are required.
 There are many combinations of sheet and foil which function as adhesives at low temperatures. Such
materials, plastics or metals, may be clubbed together with a third constituent. Pre-painted or pre-
finished metal whose primary advantage is elimination of final finishing by the user is the best known
metal-organic laminate.
 Several combinations of metal-plastic, vinyl-metal laminates, organic films and metals, account for upto
95% of metal-plastic laminates known. They are made by adhesive bonding processes.

FLAKE COMPOSITES
 Flakes are often used in place of fibers as can be densely packed. Metal flakes that are in close contact
with each other in polymer matrices can conduct electricity or heat, while mica flakes and glass can
resist both. Flakes are not expensive to produce and usually cost less than fibers.
 But they fall short of expectations in aspects like control of size, shape and show defects in the end
product.
 Glass flakes tend to have notches or cracks around the edges, which weaken the final product. They
are also resistant to be lined up parallel to each other in a matrix, causing uneven strength. They

FILLED COMPOSITES
 Filled composites result from addition of filer materials to plastic matrices to replace a portion of the
matrix, enhance or change the properties of the composites. The fillers also enhance strength and
reduce weight.
 Another type of filled composite is the product of structure infiltrated with a second-phase filler material.
The skeleton could be a group of cells, honeycomb structures, like a network of open pores.
 The infiltrant could also be independent of the matrix and yet bind the components like powders or
fibers, or they could just be used to fill voids. Fillers produced from powders are also considered as
particulate composite.
 In the open matrices of a porous or spongy composite, the formation is the natural result of processing
and such matrices can be strengthened with different materials.
 Metal impregnates are used to improve strength or tolerance of the matrix. Metal casting, graphite,
powder metallurgy parts and ceramics belong to this class of filled composites.
 In the honeycomb structure, the matrix is not naturally formed, but specifically designed to a
predetermined shape. Sheet materials in the hexagonal shapes are impregnated with resin or foam and
are used as a core material in sandwich composites.
 Fillers may be the main ingredient or an additional one in a composite. The filler particles may be
irregular structures, or have precise geometrical shapes like polyhedrons, short fibers or spheres.
 While their purpose is far from adding visual embellishment to the composites, they occasionally impart
colour or opacity to the composite which they fill.
 As inert additives, fillers can change almost any basic resin characteristic in all directions required, to
tide over the many limitations of basic resins as far as composites are concerned.
 The final composite properties can be affected by the shape, surface treatment, blend of particle types,
size of the particle in the filler material and the size distribution.
 Filled plastics tend to behave like two different constituents. They do not alloy and accept the bonding.
They are meant to develop mutually; they desist from interacting chemically with each other. It is vital
that the constituents remain in co-ordination and do not destroy each other’s desired properties.
 Matrix in a few filled composites provides the main framework while the filler furnishes almost all desired
properties. Although the matrix forms the bulk of the composite, the filler material is used in such great
quantities relatively that it becomes the rudimentary constituent.

PARTICULATE REINFORCED COMPOSITES

 Microstructures of metal and ceramics composites, which show particles of one phase strewn in the
other, are known as particle reinforced composites. Square, triangular and round shapes of
reinforcement are known, but the dimensions of all their sides are observed to be more or less equal.
 The size and volume concentration of the dispersoid distinguishes it from dispersion hardened materials.
 The dispersed size in particulate composites is of the order of a few microns and volume concentration
is greater than 28%.
 The difference between particulate composite and dispersion strengthened ones is, thus, oblivious.
Mechanism used to strengthen each of them is also different.
 The dispersed in the dispersion-strengthen materials reinforces the matrix alloy by arresting motion of
dislocations and needs large forces to fracture the restriction created by dispersion.
 In particulate composites, the particles strengthen the system by the hydrostatic coercion of fillers in
matrices and by their hardness relative to the matrix.
 Three-dimensional reinforcement in composites offers isotropic properties, because of the three
systematical orthogonal planes.
 Since it is not homogeneous, the material properties acquire sensitivity to the constituent properties, as
well as the interfacial properties and geometric shapes of the array.
 The composite’s strength usually depends on the diameter of the particles, the inter-particle spacing,
and the volume fraction of the reinforcement.
 The matrix properties influence the behavior of particulate composite too.

CERMETS
 Cermets are one of the premier groups of particle strengthened composites and usually comprises
ceramic grains of borides, carbides or oxides. The grains are dispersed in a refractory ductile metal
matrix, which accounts for 20 to 85% of the total volume.
 The bonding between ceramic and metal constituents is the result of a small measure of mutual
solutions.
 Metal oxide systems show poor bonding and require additional bonding agents. Cermet structures are
usually produced using power metallurgy techniques.
 Their potential properties are several and varied depending on the relative volumes and compositions
and of the metal and ceramic constituents.
 Impregnation of a porous ceramic structure with a metallic matrix binder is another method used to
produce cermets.
 Cermets may be employed as coating in a power form. The power is sprayed through a gas flame and
fused to a base material.
 A wide variety of cermets have been produced on a small scale, but only a few have appreciable value
commercially.
MICROSPHERES
 Microspheres are considered to be some of the most useful fillers. Their specific gravity, stable particle
size, strength and controlled density to modify products without compromising on profitability or physical
properties are its their most-sought after assets.
 Solid Microspheres have relatively low density, and therefore, influence the commercial value and
weight of the finished product.
 Studies have indicated that their inherent strength is carried over to the finished molded part of which
they form a constituent.
 Hollow microspheres are essentially silicate based, made at controlled specific gravity. They are larger
than solid glass spheres used in polymers and commercially supplied in a wider range of particle sizes.
Commercially, silicate-based hollow microspheres with different compositions using organic compounds
are also available.
 Due to the modification, the microspheres are rendered less sensitive to moisture, thus reducing
attraction between particles.
 This is very vital in highly filled liquid polymer composites where viscosity enhancement constraints the
quantum of filler loading.
 Formerly, hollow spheres were mostly used for thermosetting resin systems. Now, several new strong
spheres are available and they are at least five times stronger than hollow microspheres in static crush
strength and four times long lasting in shear.
 Recently, ceramic alumina silicate microspheres have been introduced in thermoplastic systems.
Greater strength and higher density of this system in relation to siliceous microspheres and their
resistance to abrasions and considerable strength make then suitable for application in high pressure
conditions.
 Hollow microspheres have a lower specific gravity than the pure resin. This makes it possible to use
them for lightning resin dominant compounds.
 They find wide applications in aerospace and automotive industries where weight reduction for energy
conservation is one of the main considerations.
 But their use in systems requiring high shear mixing or high-pressure moulding is restricted as their
crush resistance is in no way comparable to that of solid spheres.
 Fortunately, judicious applications of hollow spheres eliminate crazing at the bends in the poly-vinyl
chloride plastisol applications, where the end component is subjected to bending stresses.
 Microspheres, whether solid or hollow, show properties that are directly related to their spherical shape
let them behave like minute ball bearing, and hence, they give better flow properties.
 They also distribute stress uniformly throughout resin matrices. In spherical particles, the ratio of surface
area to volume is minimum.
 In resin-rich surfaces of reinforced systems, the microspheres which are free of orientation and sharp
edges are capable of producing smooth surfaces.
 Based on the of type of the matrix used, composite can be classified as
1. Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)
2. Metal Matrix Composites (MMC)
3. Ceramic Matrix Composite (CMC)

Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)

Polymer matrix composites have the advantage of easy fabrication, low cost, low density and chemical
inertness; however, most advanced resin cannot be used above 300 oC for prolonged period.

Metal Matrix Composites (MMC)

 Metal matrix composite can be used at higher temperature ranges. The maximum temperature that can
withstand by such material is about 1000oC as in the case of fiber reinforced super alloy.

Ceramic Matrix Composite (CMC)

 Ceramic composites have the advantage over metal matrix composites at even higher temperature
because of their lower chemical reactivity and greater oxidation reaction resistance however,
 Their main disadvantages are:
1. Low strain to failure, which limit the stress in the fiber at low levels.
2. Relatively high modulus and lack of ductility, which prevents accommodation of thermal stresses from,
any mismatch in thermal expansion.

METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES (MMC)

 Metal matrix composites in general consist of two or more chemically distinct macroconstituents,
separated by distinct interface.
 One obviously the primary phase is the metal matrix and the second component is the reinforcement.
 In the production of the composites, the matrix and the reinforcement are mixed together.
 This is to distinguish a composite from a two phase alloy where the second phase forms as a
particulate, eutectic or eutectoid reaction, etc., in other words a composite initially begins as separate
components, i.e., the metal matrix and the reinforcement.

Classification of the Metal Matrix Composites

 The metal matrix composites may be classified in many ways, depending on the concept of interest.
 One useful classification system is based on micro structural aspects, differentiating between composite
materials according to the morphology of the constituent phase.
 Using this system composite materials fall into following categories:
1. Dispersion strengthened composites.
2. Particle strengthened composites.
3. Fiber reinforced composites.
Dispersion Strengthened Composites
 This composite is characterized by a microstructure consisting of an element matrix within which fine
particles are uniformly dispersed. The particle diameter ranges from 0.01 to 0.1 µm and the volume
fraction of particle ranges from 1 to 15%.

Particle Strengthened Composites

 Particulates are the most common and cheapest reinforcement materials. Particle-reinforced composites
have hard particles surrounded by a softer matrix. The particles in these composites are larger than in
dispersion-strengthened composites.
 This composite is characterized by dispersed particles of greater than one-micron diameter with a
volume fraction of 5 to 40%. Nowadays various kinds of ceramic particles (Oxide, Carbide, and Nitride)
are used as reinforcement.
 Silicon Carbide (SiC) particles reinforced aluminium matrix composite have a good potential for use as
wear resistant materials. The particles lead to favorable effects on properties such as hardness, wear
resistance and compressive strength.
 Silicon Carbide has advantages over other reinforcement such as thermal conductivity, densitity, relative
cost, corrosion resistance, machinability and workability of the aluminum alloy- silicon carbide
composites (Srivatsan et al, 1995).
 The other particles (Krystyna Imielińska and Yann le Petitcorps, 2001) used as the reinforcement in
aluminium alloy are graphite, SiO2, MgO, Si3N4, TiC, BN, Mica, ZrO2, B4C, TiO2, Al2O3 and Glass.

Fiber Reinforced Composites

 The reinforcing phase in fiber composite materials:
(a) Spans the entire size range, from a fraction of a µm to several mm in diameter
(b) Spans the length from mm to continuous fibers
(c) Spans an entire range of volume concentration, from a few percent to greater than 80%.
 Over the years, a larger number of fibers have been investigated as possible reinforcements for metals.
The most important during the mid of 1990’s are alumina, boron, carbon and silicon carbide.
 Other fibers used at various times include boron carbide, silica, zirconia, magnesia, alumina-boria-silica,
silicon nitride, mullite, boron nitride and titanium diboride. In addition, new fibers are continually being
developed.
 One example is “tryanno fibers” a silicon carbide based material, which is composed of titanium, silicon,
carbon and oxygen.
 Coatings are often applied to fibers for a variety of reasons: to promote wetting by matrix, to reduce
handling damage, to bridge or fill in surface defects to improve strength, to optimize fiber-matrix bonding
characteristics and to prevent deleterious fiber-matrix interaction at high temperatures.
 The reinforcing phase in fiber reinforced composites span the entire size range, from 0.1 to 250 and
spans entire range of volume concentrations from few percent to greater than 90%.
 The distinguishing microstructural feature of fiber-reinforced composites is that of reinforcing fiber has
one long dimension, whereas the reinforcing particles of the other two types do not.

APPLICATIONS OF MMC
Sl.N Area of application Some of the components Advantages
o
Space structures, Antennas, Aircraft
primary and Secondary structures, High thrust to weight ratio for
Engine static and rotating engines, High stiffness, low
1 Aerospace Industry components, transmission static density, controlled thermal
and rotating components, satellite expansion, High wear resistance
& helicopter structures, compressor etc.
blades.
High wear resistance, Lower cost,
Piston & Cylinder blocks for I.C Lower density, Elevated
2 Automotive Industry engines, drive shaft, connecting temperature strength, fatigue
rod, wheels Chassis, Brake rotors. resistance, Controlled thermal
expansion
High stiffness, High heat dissipation
Substrate and housing for electronic
3 Electronic packaging capacity, controlled thermal
microcircuits.
expansion, low density.
High stiffness, Low density, High
4 Sports Industry Bicycle frames, Tennis rackets
fatigue resistance

Advantages and Limitations of Composite Materials

The major advantages of AMC compared to unreinforced materials are as follows
 Greater strength
 Improved stiffness
 Reduced density (weight)
 Improved high temperature properties
 Controlled thermal expansion coefficient
 Improved abrasion and wear resistance
 Improved damping capabilities
Disadvantages and Limitations of Composite Materials
 Properties of many important composites are anisotropic - the properties differ depending on the
direction in which they are measured – this may be an advantage or a disadvantage
 Many of the polymer-based composites are subject to attack by chemicals or solvents, just as the
polymers themselves are susceptible to attack
 Composite materials are generally expensive
 Manufacturing methods for shaping composite materials are often slow and costly
 Not often environmentally friendly.
 Low recyclability.
 Cost can fluctuate.
 Can be damaged.
 Anisotropic properties.
 Matrix degrades.
 Low reusability.

Factors considered for Selection of Matrix

In selecting matrix material, following factors may be taken into consideration:
 The matrix must have a mechanical strength commensurate with that of the reinforcement i.e. both
should becompatible. Thus, if a high strength fibre is used as the reinforcement, there is no point using a
low strength matrix, which will not transmit stresses efficiently to the reinforcement.
 The matrix must stand up to the service conditions, viz., temperature, humidity, exposure to ultra-violet
environment, exposure to chemical atmosphere, abrasion by dust particles, etc.
 The matrix must be easy to use in the selected fabrication process.
 Smoke requirements.
 Life expectancy.
 The resultant composite should be cost effective.

Limitations of Composites
 Some of the associated disadvantages of advanced composites are as follows:
 High cost of raw materials and fabrication.
 Composites are more brittle than wrought metals and thus are more easily damaged.
 Transverse properties may be weak.
 Matrix is weak, therefore, low toughness.
 Reuse and disposal may be difficult and Difficult to attach.
 Repair introduces new problems, for the following reasons:
 Materials require refrigerated transport and storage and have limited shelf life.
 Hot curing is necessary in many cases requiring special tooling.
 Hot or cold curing takes time.
 Analysis is difficult.
 Matrix is subject to environmental degradation.
 UNIT - II

Polymer Matrix Composites – Matrix Resins – Thermosetting resins, Thermoplastic resins,

Polyacryl ethers (PAE), Thermoplastic Polyimides (TPI), Polyacrylene Sulfide, Molecularly
ordered liquid Crystals (MOLC), Polyblends Alloys, Fibers and Laminar Composites.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

POLYMER MATRIX COMPOSITES

 Introduction
 Almost all biological systems are built of polymers which not only perform mechanical functions (like
wood, bone, cartilage, leather) but also contain and regulate chemical reactions (leaf, veins, cells).
 People have used these natural polymers for thousands of years now. Modern scientific researches
have made possible the development of numerous polymers, which are synthesized from small organic
molecules.
 Many of our useful plastics, rubbers, and fibre materials are synthetic polymers. In fact, in some
applications polymers replaced metallic materials.
 The use of synthetic polymers have increased largely during recent decades. This is due to their many
useful properties, coupled with comparatively low cost.

Characteristics of Polymers:
Some of the attractive characteristics of polymers are:
 Low density.
 Good thermal and electrical insulation properties.
 High resistance to chemical attack.
 Ease of fabrication.
 Relatively low cost.

Disadvantages of polymer materials are:

 Low strength.
 Low elastic modulus values.
 Low softening temperatures.

However, the low strength and stiffness can be improved by fibre reinforcement of polymers.

What are Polymers?

 The term polymer* is derived from two Greek words 'poly' and 'mers'. The term 'poly' means 'many', and
the term 'mer' means 'parts or units'.
 Thus polymers are composed of a large number of repeating units of small molecules called
monomers.
 Monomers: Monomers are the small molecules which combine to form a polymer. They are also called
repeating units as they combine repeatedly to form a polymer.
 The number of repeating units in a polymer is known as degree of polymerization or D.P. value.
 Polymerisation is a reaction which involves the union of small molecules to form molecules having
higher molecular weight called polymer.
 Therefore, a polymer is made up of thousands of monomers joined together to form a large
molecule.Polymers may be defined as giant organic, chain-like molecules having molecular weight^ from
10000 to more than 1,000,000 g.mol"1.

CLASSIFICATION OF POLYMERS
The basic classification scheme of polymers is illustrated

 However, our study is limited only to thermoplastics and thermosetting plastics.

Natural Vs Synthetic Plastics

 Natural plastics: The plastics which are available as such in the nature are called natural plastics.
Examples include resins, lac, and casein.
 Synthetic plastics: The plastics which are prepared artificially are called synthetics. Examples include
urea, phenol formaldehydes, polystyrene, and acrylic.

source of Raw Materials for Plastics

The three main sources of raw materials used in the manufacture of plastics are:
1. Animal and vegetable by-product [such as casein (from cow's milk), cellulose (mainly from cotton fibres),
and wood pulp (cellulosics).
2. Coal by-products (obtained during the destructive distillation of coal to produce coal gas).
3. Petroleum by-products (obtained during the refining of crude oil).

CLASSIFICATION OF PLASTICS
The plastics can be broadly classified into two groups:
 Thermoplastics
 Thermosetting plastics

1. Thermoplastics
 Thermoplastics, also known as thermoplasts, are the plastics whose plasticity increases with the
increase in temperature.
 It means that thermoplastics soften (i.e., liquidity) when heated, and harden when cooled.
 Thermoplastics may be solidified and reheated as many time as desired. But their characteristics remain
the same.
 Thermoplasts are relatively soft and ductile.
 Since thermoplasts have low melting temperatures and can be repeatedly moulded and remoulded to
the desired shape, they have a good resale/scrap value.

Mechanism:
 It may be noted that most of the thermoplastics are formed by addition polymerization. We know that the
addition polymerization produces only linear polymers i.e., chain molecules or linear molecules.
 Therefore thermoplastics can be mechanically deformed and softened at high temperature. Also they
can be easily moulded due to the absence of cross links.
 On cooling, they are hardened and they regain their original low temperature properties.

Examples: Some of the important thermoplastics are:

1. Polythenes,
2. Polystyrenes,
3. Polyvinyls,
4. Acrylics,
5
. Polyamides (Nylones), 6. Polytetrafluoro ethylenes (Teflon)
7. Cellulosics.

2. Thermosetting Plastics
 Thermosetting plastics, also known as thermosets, are plastics which become permanently hard when
heat is applied and do not soften upon subsequent heating.
 That is, thermosetting plastics once set cannot be soften on heating. Thus they cannot be
remoulded/reshaped again and again. That's why they do not have a resale/scrap value.
 The thermosetting plastics are generally stronger, harder, more brittle, more resistant to heat and
solvents than thermoplastics.

Mechanism:
 It may be noted that most of the thermosetting plastics are formed by condensation polymerization. We
know that the condensation polymerization produces cross-linked molecules.
 Crosslinked molecules are composed of long molecules linked to each other in three dimensions by
primary or valence bonds. They are not broken by heat until the compound is decomposed.
 Once the product is heated to an excessive temperature, where cross-links are broken, an irreversible
decomposition takes place. Moreover, due to these cross- linked molecules the thermosetting plastics
cannot be softened once they are moulded, even at high temperatures.

Examples: Some of the important thermosetting plastics are:

1. Polyesters
2. Phenolic
3. Urea formaldehyde,
4. Melamine formaldehyde
5. Epoxides.

THERMOPLASTICS VS THERMOSETTING PLASTICS

S.No Thermoplastics Thermosetting plastics

They are formed by condensation
1 They are formed by addition polymerization.
polymerization.
They are linear polymers, so they are composed They are composed of three dimensional
2
of chain molecules. network of cross- linked molecules.
Softening is possible on reheating (because of the Softening is not possible on reheating (because
3
weak secondary forces). of strong co-valent bonds).
They can be easily moulded on remoulded into
4 They cannot be remoulded into any new shape.
any shape.
 5 They can be recycled again.
6 They can be reclaimed for value.
7 They are soft, weak, and less brittle.
8 They are soluble in organic solvents.
They are not suitable for high temperature
9
services.
They cannot be recycled.
They cannot be reclaimed.
They are hard, strong, and more brittle.
They are not soluble in organic solvents.
They are usable in processes requiring high
temperature.

10 Examples: Polythenes, polystyrenes, PVC, etc. Examples: Polyesters, phenolics, epoxides, etc.

THERMOPLASTICS
Hydrocarbon Plastics
The major hydrocarbon thermoplastic polymers are polyethylene, polypropylene, and polystyrene.

1. POLYETHYLENE (PE)
 Polyethylene, also known commonly as polythene, is made by the polymerisation of ethene i.e.,
ethylene (CH2 = CH2).
 Polyethylene is made from petroleum or natural gas feed stocks.
 The properties and application of PE vary over wide ranges depending on the molecular weight, the
method of manufacture, and differences in structure and density.

Types of polyethylenes:
Based on density, there are four classifications of polyethylene:
 Low density polyethylene (LDPE),
 High density polyethylene (HDPE),
 Linear low density polyethylene (LLDPE), and
 Ultra-high-molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE).

Characteristics of PEs:
 They have excellent resistance to most solvents and chemicals.
 They are tough and flexible over a wide range of temperature.
 They are non-toxic.
 They possess good electrical insulation properties.

Applications:
 Typical applications of polyethylene include flexible bottles, toys, packing films, seals and gaskets, bowls
and buckets, etc.

2. POLYPROPYLENE (PP)
 Polypropylene is formed from the monomer propene i.e., propylene (CH 2 = CH — CH2).
 It is similar to high-density polyethylene (HDPE), but its mechanical properties make it more suitable for
moulded parts than polyethylene.

Characteristics of PPs:
 They are stiffer, harder, and often stronger than polyethylenes.
 They have excellent fatigue resistance and a higher use temperature.
 They are lighter in weight.
 They have good chemical and thermal resistance. But they have poor resistance.
 They are relatively low cost to ultra-violet light.

Applications:
 Typical applications of polypropylene include low-cost semi-rigid moulded products such as
housewares, car interior components; bottle caps; extruded pipes; carpet fibres, etc.

3. POLYSTYRENE (PS)
 Polystyrene is made from ethyl-benzene.
 It accounts for about 20% of all thermoplastics in commercial use.

Characteristics of polystyrenes:
 They are low cost, brittle, glassy, transparent polymers.
 They are easy to process; have excellent moldability.
 They have good dimensional stability.
 They have a poor chemical and corrosion resistance.
 They are susceptible to ultra-violet lights.
Types of polystyrenes:
Some of the commonly used poly-styrenes are:
 HIPS (High Impact Polystyrene),
 ABS (Acryknitrile-Butadiene-Styrene), and
 SAN (Styrene-Acrylonitrile).

Applications:
 Typical applications of polystyrene include packaging and insulating foams, lighting panels, appliance
components, egg boxes, wall tiles, battery cases, etc.

4. POLYVINYL CHLORIDE (PVC)

 Polyvinyl chlorides (PVC) is made by polymerization of the monomer vinyl chloride (CH 2 — CHCL).
 PVC is one of the most widely used plastics in terms of volume produced.

Characteristics of PVCs:
 They are good low-cost, general purpose materials.
 They are ordinarily rigid, but can be made flexible with plasticizers.
 They are often copolymerized.
 They are susceptible to heat distortion.
 They have good flame, electrical, chemical, oil, abrasion and weather resistance in various grades.

Types of PVCs:
The various grades of PVC available are:

1. UPVC (Unplasticised PVC): UPVC is a strong, rigid and tough material with good resistance to ultra-
violet light.
2. PPVC (Plasticised PVC): The raw polymer is compounded with a plasticising agent to form PPVC. This
makes PPVC a soft, flexible, rubbery material.

3. CPVC (chlorinated PVC): It is a polymer of dichloro-ethylene.

4. PVDC (Polyvinylidene chloride).

Applications:
 Typical applications of PVC include pipes, valves, fittings, floor tiles, wire insulations, toys, phonograph
records, vinyl automobile roofs, etc,

5. POLYTETRAFLUORO ETHYLENE (PTFE)

Polytetrafluoro ethylene (PTFE) is the most widely used fluorocarbon polymer.
Characteristics of PTFEs:
 They are chemically inert in almost all environments.
 They have excellent electrical properties.
 They have low coefficient of friction.
 They possess relatively weak and poor cold-flow properties.
Other fluorocarbon polymers are:
 PVDF (polyvinylidene fluoride),
 PVF (polyvinyl fluoride), and
 PFA (perfluoroalkoxy ethylene).
Applications:
 Typical applications of PTFE include anti-corrosive seals, chemical pipes and valves, bearings, non-stick
coatings, and high temperature electronic parts.

ACRYLIC MATERIALS
Acrylic materials are thermoplastic polymers based on the polymerization of esters of acrylic acid and/or
methacrylic acid. The most commonly used acrylic polymers are:
 PMMA (polymethyl methacrylate)
 PAN (polyacrylonitrile).

6. PMMA

PMMA (polymethyl methacrylate), also commonly known as perspex or plexiglass, is produced by the
addition polymerization of methyl methacrylate.

Characteristics of PMMAs:
 They are hard, rigid, and high impact strength thermoplastic.
 They are highly transparent to light.
 They can be easily formed.
 They can be readily coloured and they have excellent decorative properties.

Applications:
Typical applications of PMMAs include camera lenses, flash lights, safety glasses, drafting equipments,
instrument panels, display signs, transparent aircraft enclosures, and windows.
7. PAN
PAN (polyacrylonitrile) is an acrylic polymer made by the addition polymerisation of acrylonitrile.

Characteristics of PANs:
 They are highly stable material.
 They have good resistant to oils and greases.

Applications:
 The PAN is mainly used for synthetic fibre manufacture.

8. POLYAMIDES (PA) OR NYLONS

 Polyamides (PA), also known as nylons, are the products of condensation reactions between an amine
and an organic acid.
 There are number of common polyamides. They are usually designated as nylon 6, nylon 6/6, nylon
6/10, nylon 6/12, nylon 11, and nylon 12.
 These suffixes refer to the number of carbon atoms in each of the reacting substances involved in the
condensation polymerization process.
 Nylons with a slash (/) between the numbers are copolymers; for example, nylon 6/12 is a copolymer of
nylons 6 and 12.

Characteristics of nylons:
 They are crystalline thermoplastics with good mechanical properties.
 They are very strong and tough.
 They possess good abrasion resistance.
 They are flexible and have high impact strengths.
 They possess high softening temperatures (in excess of 200°C), so moulding is difficult.
 They possess a good resistance to most solvents and chemicals, but are affected by phenols.
 They tend to absorb water, with a consequent reduction in strength.

Applications:
 Typical applications of nylons include bearings, gears, cams, fastenings, many automotive parts,
bushings, electrical components, fibres, and ropes.
HETEROCHAIN POLYMERS
 Heterochain polymers are those polymer materials which possess linear molecular chains with some of
the atoms in the chain being of elements other than carbon.
 The major heterochain polymers are: acetal (POM), polycarbonate (PC), and polyethylene teraphthalate
(PET).

9. ACETAL (POM)
 Acetal, also known as polyacetal and polyoxymethylene, is based on the polymerisation of
formaldehyde.

Characteristics of acetals:
 They possess good strength, stiffness and toughness.
 They have a low coefficient of friction.
 They have outstanding fatigue life and exceptional solvent resistance.
 They retain their properties at temperatures of upto 120°C.

Applications:
 Typical applications of acetals include plumbing fixtures, pens, bearings, gears, cams, levers, fan
blades, pump parts, water taps, and piping.

10. POLYCARBONATE (PC)

 Polycarbonate is a linear heterochain polymer made from the condensation of bisphenol A and carbonic
acid.
Characteristic of polycarbonates:
 They have very good impact resistance and ductility.
 They are dimensionally stable.
 They are transparent and low water absorption materials.
 They have low fatigue and weak resistance.
 They can be attacked by some organic solvents and are susceptible to stress cracking.

Applications:
 Typical applications of polycarbonates include safety helmets, shields and goggles, lenses, glazing,
lighting fittings, CDs, car headlamp mouldings, kettle mouldings.
 Instrument casings and machine housings, sterilisable medical components, and kitchen-wares.

11. POLYETHYLENE TERAPHTLIALATE (PET) OR POLYESTER OR PETP

 PET (polyethylene teraphthalate), also known as polyester or PETP, is a linear polyester made by the
condensation polymerisation of ethylene glycol and teraphthalic acid.

Characteristics of PETs:
 They are high strength, high stiffness thermoplastics.
 They are produced as fibres, as transparent films, and as moulding materials.
 They have excellent fatigue and wear strength.
 They possess good resistance to humidity, acids, greases, oils, and solvents.
 They can be reinforced with glass fibre.

Applications:
 Typical applications of PET include fibres, photographic films, recording tapes, boil-in-bag containers,
beverage containers, soft drinks bottles, electrical connectors, parts for domestic goods and automotive
components.

12. POLYETHER ETHER KETONE (PEEK)

 PEEK (polyether ether ketone) is a linear-crystalline hetero- chain polymer. It is a high-temperature
plastics, which is generally used for service of high temperatures.

Characteristics of PEEKs:

 They have a melt temperature as high as 330°C.

 They have low flammability and lowest smoke emission ratings.
 They have good fatigue and chemical resistance.
 They have good dimensional stability at elevated temperatures.
 They possess better mechanical properties.

Applications:
 Typical applications of PEEK include high- temperature engineering components, high-temperature
electrical insulation and coatings, and aerospace applications.
13. POLYPHENYLENE OXIDE (PPO)
 PPO (polyphenylene oxide) is an amorphous linear heterochain polymer.

Characteristics of PPOs:
 They possess good mechanical properties and a high impact strength over a wide range of temperature
(- 40°C to 150°C).
 They have a low mould shrinkage and they show very good dimensional stability over a wide range of
temperatures.
 They have good resistance to hydrolysis but not to many solvents.
 They are suitable for continuous use at temperatures upto 80°C.

Applications:
 Typical applications of PPO include computer components, high-temperature consumer electrical
components, automotive parts, components for dishwashers and washing machines.

14. POLYPHENYLENE SULPHIDE (PPS)

 PPS (polyphenylene sulphide) is also a linear heterochain polymer. In many ways, the PPS is similar to
PPO.

Characteristics ofPPSs:
 They have good resistance to chemicals and solvents.
 They also possess good flame resistance.
 They are difficult to pigment, therefore they are available only in dark colours.
 They are suitable for continuous use at temperatures upto 190°C.

Applications:
 Typical applications of PPS include coatings, fluid handling components (such as pumps, pipes and
gaskets), electronic components, hair dryer components.
 However the main uses of PPSs are similar to PPOs but usable at higher temperatures.
15. POLYIMIDES (PI)
 The polyimides are a group of linear aromatic polymers. They are produced by a condensation reaction
between pyromellitic dianhydride and a diamine.

Characteristics of PIs:
 They possess good mechanical properties with a low coefficient of friction.
 They possess excellent thermal resistance upto about 250°C.
 They have good resistance to organic solvents but are attacked by alkalis and concentrated acids.
 They are transparent to microwaves and are not affected by radiation.

Applications:
 Typical applications of polyimides include bearings and seals for high-load/high-speed applications,
printed circuit boards, high temperature electrical cable insulations, fibres for space shuttle, and
adhesives.

16. Polyamide-imide (PAI)

PAI (polyamide-imide), similar to PI, is also a linear aromatic polymer for use at high temperatures.

Characteristics of PAIs:
 The properties of PAIs are approaching those of PIs. However the PAIs are expensive and are attacked
by alkalis.

Applications:
 Typical applications of PAIs include valves, bearings, electrical connectors, printed circuit boards, and
components for gas turbine and spark ignition engines.

Note 1: In addition, there are so many thermoplastics available. Some of them are:
1. Cellulosics:
 Cellulose, is a naturally occurring high-polymer, formed by the photosynthesis of glucose, makes up a
significant portion of all plant life.
 The most commonly used cellulose polymers are cellulose acetate (CA), cellulose acetate butyrate
(CAB), cellulose nitrate (CN), cellulose propionate (CP), ethyl cellulose (EC), viscose and viscose rayon.

2. Polysulphones and poly arylates:

 These polymers are tough, glassy thermoplastics. They are both heterochain aromatic polymers.
 The main polymers of these groups are polysulphone (PSU), polyether- sulphone (PES), poly phenylene
sulphone (PPSU), polyaryl sulphone (PAS), and polyaryl ether (PAE).

 PROPERTIES AND APPLICATIONS OF SOME THERMOSETTING PLASTICS

 Some of the important thermosetting plastics, their trade names, properties, and typical applications are
given Table. Following are some comments about several thermosetting plastics listed in Table.

PHENOLICS
 Phenolics, also known as Bakelites are the oldest family of thermosetting plastics. The most important
phenolic materials is the polyformaldehydes.

1. POLYFORMALDEHYDE (PF)
 Phenolics are based on phenol and formaldehyde, that's why they are also termed as phenol
formaldehydes (PF).

Characteristics of PFs:
 They are hard, rigid thermosets stable upto about 150°C.
 They have low thermal conductivity and good electrical insulation properties.
 They possess good resistance to oils, greases, and many solvents.
 They are relatively low in cost.
 They are limited in colourability.

Applications:
 Typical applications of phenol formaldehydes (PFs) include electrical plugs, sockets, switches,
telephones, door knobs and handles, adhesives, coatings, and laminates.

2. POLYESTERS
 Polyesters are reaction products of dibasic acids and polyhydric alcohols.
Applications:
 Typical applications of polyesters include safety helmets, fibre glass boats, machine covers, structural
panels, electrical mouldings, and decorative laminates.

3.EPOXIDES (EP)
 Epoxides are thermosetting polymers formed from molecules containing a tight C — O — C ring.

Applications:
 Epoxides are used as adhesives, as rigid moulded parts for electrical applications, automotive
components, circuit boards, sporting goods, and as a matrix for fibre-reinforced composite materials for
aerospace.

4. POLYURETHANES (PUR)
 Polyurethane is a family name given to a series of polymers that are produced by the reaction between
aromatic di- isocyanates and low molecular weight polymer molecules.
 Depending on the degree of formulation, the urethanes behave as thermosetting polymers,
thermoplastic polymers, or elastomers.

Applications:
 Typical applications of polyurethanes include hoses, car bumpers, shoe heel tips, hammer heads, gears,
furniture, and insulations.

Note 1.In addition to thermoplastics and thermosetting plastics, a number of natural and synthetic linear
polymers called elastomers are available.
 The term elastomer is used to describe a polymer that has rubber like properties.
 Elastomers have unique characteristics in that, at room temperature, they can be stretched upto at least
twice their original length and upon immediate release of the stress will return quickly to approximately
their original length.
 The more important engineering elastomers in general as include:
1. Natural rubber (NR)
2. Polyisoprene (IR),
3. Styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR),
4. Butadiene rubber (BR),
5. Polychloroprene rubber (CR),
6. Acrylonitrile butadiene rubber (NBR),
7. Butyl rubber (IIR),
8. Ethylene-propylene rubber (EPM), and
9. Silicone rubber (SI).

MOLECULARLY ORDERED LIQUID CRYSTALS

 The various liquid-crysta(LC)l phases (called mesophases) can be characterized by the type of
ordering. One can distinguish positional order (whether molecules are arranged in any sort of
ordered lattice) and orientational order (whether molecules are mostly pointing in the same
direction), and moreover order can be either short-range (only between molecules close to each
other) or long-range (extending to larger, sometimes macroscopic, dimensions).

 Most thermotropic liquid-crystals will have an isotropic phase at high temperature. That is that
heating will eventually drive them into a conventional liquid phase characterized by random and
isotropic molecular ordering (little to no long-range order), and fluid-like flow behavior.
 Under other conditions (for instance, lower temperature), a LC might inhabit one or more
phases with significant anisotropic orientational structure and short-range orientational order
while still having an ability to flow.
 The ordering of liquid crystalline phases is extensive on the molecular scale. This order extends
up to the entire domain size, which may be on the order of micrometers, but usually does not
extend to the macroscopic scale as often occurs in classical crystalline solids.
 However some techniques, such as the use of boundaries or an applied electric field, can be
used to enforce a single ordered domain in a macroscopic liquid crystal sample.
 The ordering in a liquid crystal might extend along only one dimension, with the material being
essentially disordered in the other two directions.

POLYBLENDS ALLOYS
 A polymer blend or polymer mixture is a member of a class of materials analogous to metal alloys, in
which at least two polymers are blended together to create a new material with different physical
properties

Polymer blends can be broadly divided into three categories:

 Immiscible polymer blends (heterogeneous polymer blends): This is by far the most populous group. If
the blend is made of two polymers, two glass transition temperatures will be observed.
 Compatible polymer blends: Immiscible polymer blend that exhibits macroscopically uniform physical
properties. The macroscopically uniform properties are usually caused by sufficiently strong interactions
between the component polymers.[2]
 Miscible polymer blends (homogeneous polymer blend): Polymer blend that is a single-phase
structure. In this case, one glass transition temperature will be observed.

FIBERS:
 A fiber is characterized by its very high length-to-diameter ratio. The strength-to-density and the
stiffness-to-density ratios are generally used as indicators of the effectiveness of the fiber. Fibers are the
principal constituents in a fiber - reinforced composite material.
 They occupy the largest volume fraction in a composite laminate and share the major portion of the load
acting on the composite structure.
 Proper selection of the type of fiber, volume fraction of fiber, length of fiber, and orientation of fiber is
very important, since these parameters influence the following characteristics of a composite laminate:
 Density
 Tensile strength and modulus
 Compressive strength and modulus
 Fatigue strength
 fatigue failure mechanisms
 Electrical and thermal conductivities
 Cost
Classification of Fibers:
Fibers can be classified based on their production, size and strength.
(i) Based on production
(a) Natural fibers
 These fibers are naturally available. As such they have inferior quality than the synthetic or man-made
fibers. But, natural fibers are bio-degradable and there by eco-friendly. The list of natural fibers are
 Banana ,
C
oir,
Jute, Palm, Pine apple, Roselle, Sisal

(b) Synthetic / Man-made fibers

These fibers are manufactured synthetically. So, they show superior qualities than the natural fibers. But,
synthetic fibers are not bio-degradable and so a threat to the environment pollution. The list of man-
made fibers includes
 Boron, Carbon, Ceramic, Glass, Graphite, Kevlar, Silica

(ii) Based on size:

Fibers are divided into three categories based on their size. They are
 Filaments
 Wires, and
 Rods

(iii) Based on strength:

Fibers are grouped into three based on their strength-wise performance. They are high, medium and low
performance fibers. For example,
a) High performance:
 Carbon fiber
 Boron fiber
 Kevlar fiber
b) Medium performance:Glass fiber
c) Low performance: Natural fibers

What quality of fibers required for composite material:

Certain requirements are to be satisfied by fiber in order to be used as reinforcement material in
composites. They are
 fibers should be extremely thin
 fibers should be one dimensional (length > cross section)
 fiber should have high modulus and high strength
 utilization of fibers should be very effective
 fiber should contribute sustainability to the improved mechanical properties of composite

Characterization of Fibers:
Fibers should possess some characteristics so that they can be used with matrix to form composite
materials to give a better product.
 Fiber should be flexible
 Lateral dimension of fibers is in millimeter or micron level
 Fiber must be several times stronger than the matrix to share the high fraction of total load
 Fiber should have higher elastic properties than the matrix.
 Fiber should have high aspect ratio (length / cross-sectional area)

Types of fibers
Even though there are a variety of fibers in the market, some of the fibers widely used in the aerospace
industry will be discussed here.

(i) Glass fibers:

Glass fibers are the most common fibers of all reinforcing fibers for polymeric matrix composites (PMC).

The principal advantages of glass fibers are

 Low cost
 High tensile strength
 High chemical resistance
 Excellent insulating properties
The disadvantages are
 Low tensile modulus
 High density (among the commercial fibers)
 Sensitivity to abrasion during handling (which frequently decreases its tensile strength)
 Low fatigue resistance
 High hardness (which causes excessive wear on molding dies and cutting tools)

Types of glass fibers:

 Glass fibers are available in variety of forms which cater for specific applications. The cheapest among
all the glass fibers is E-glass fiber and S-glass has the highest tensile strength.
 The types of glass fibers are:
 A-glass Has high alkaline content
 C-glass Used in chemical applications since having good corrosion resistance
 E-glass Used in electrical applications & FRP industry and low cost
 S-glass Used for aircraft components and missile casings owing to having high strength
 Z-glass Used for communication purposes

LAMINAR COMPOSITES

 Laminar composites are found in as many combinations as the number of materials. They can be
described as materials comprising of layers of materials bonded together.
 These may be of several layers of two or more metal materials occurring alternately or in a determined
order more than once, and in as many numbers as required for a specific purpose.

 Clad and sandwich laminates have many areas as it ought to be, although they are known to follow
the rule of mixtures from the modulus and strength point of view.
 Other intrinsic values pertaining to metal-matrix, metal-reinforced composites are also fairly well
known.

 Powder metallurgical processes like roll bonding, hot pressing, diffusion bonding, brazing and so on
can be employed for the fabrication of different alloys of sheet, foil, powder or sprayed materials. It is not
possible to achieve high strength materials unlike the fiber version.
 But sheets and foils can be made isotropic in two dimensions more easily than fibers. Foils and sheets
are also made to exhibit high percentages of which they are put.
 For instance, a strong sheet may use over 92% in laminar structure, while it is difficult to make fibers of
such compositions. Fiber laminates cannot over 75% strong fibers.
 The main functional types of metal-metal laminates that do not posses high strength or stiffness are
single layered ones that endow the composites with special properties, apart from being cost-effective.
They are usually made by pre-coating or cladding methods.
 Pre-coated metals are formed by forming by forming a layer on a substrate, in the form of a thin
continuous film. This is achieved by hot dipping and occasionally by chemical plating and electroplating.
 Clad metals are found to be suitable for more intensive environments where denser faces are required.
 There are many combinations of sheet and foil which function as adhesives at low temperatures. Such
materials, plastics or metals, may be clubbed together with a third constituent. Pre-painted or pre-
finished metal whose primary advantage is elimination of final finishing by the user is the best known
metal-organic laminate.
 Several combinations of metal-plastic, vinyl-metal laminates, organic films and metals, account for upto
95% of metal-plastic laminates known. They are made by adhesive bonding processes.
 UNIT – III
Metal Matrix Composites – Matrix selection, Reinforcement and reinforcement selection, Matrix
reinforcement interface, Interaction zone, Interface bond strength.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES
Introduction
 Although it is undoubtedly true that the high strength of composites is largely due to the fibre
reinforcement, the importance of matrix material cannot be underestimated as it provides support for the
fibres and assists the fibres in carrying the loads.
 It also provides stability to the composite material. Resin matrix system acts as a binding agent in a
structural component in which the fibres are embedded. When too much resin is used, the part is
classified as resin rich.
 On the other hand if there is too little resin, the part is called resin starved. A resin rich part is more
susceptible to cracking due to lack of fibre support, whereas a resin starved part is weaker because of
void areas and the fact that fibres are not held together and they are not well supported.

Matrix Selection
 Thermodynamically stable dispersoids are essential for the use of metal matrix composites for high
temperature applications.
 This can be done by using an alloy dispersoid system in which solid state diffusivity, interfacial energies
and elemental solubility are minimized, in turn reducing coarsening and interfacial reactions.
 Aluminium and magnesium alloys are regarded as widely used matrices due to low density and high
thermal conductivity.
 Composites with low matrix alloying additions result in attractive combinations of ductility, toughness and
strength.
 In discontinuous reinforced metal matrix composites minor alloying elements, used in wrought alloys as
grain refiners, are not required. These additions should be avoided since coarse inter-metallic
compounds get formed during consolidation, thus, reducing the tensile ductility of the composite.

The metal matrix composites (MMC) can be divided into four general categories:
1. Fiber- reinforced MMC containing either continuous or discontinuous fiber reinforcements, the latter are
in the form of whiskers with approximately 0.1 0.5 μm in diameter and have a length-to- diameter ratio
up to 200.
2. Particulate-reinforced MMC containing either particles or plate lets that range in size from 0.5 to 100 μ
m. The particulates can be incorporated into the metal matrix to higher volume fractions than the
whiskers.
3. Dispersion - strengthened MMC containing particles that are < 0.1 μm min diameter.
4. In situ MM C, such as directionally solidified eutectic alloys.

Role of matrix materials

 The choice of a matrix alloy for an MMC is dictated by several considerations. Of particular importance
is whether the composite is to be continuously or discontinuously reinforced.
 The use of continuous fibers as reinforcements may result in transfer of most of the load to the
reinforcing filaments and hence composite strength will be governed primarily by the fiber strength.
 The primary roles of the matrix alloy then are to provide efficient transfer of load to the fibers and to blunt
cracks in the event that fiber failure occurs and so the matrix alloy for continuously reinforced
composites may be chosen more for toughness than for strength.
 On this basis, lower strength, more ductile, and tougher matrix alloys may be utilized in continuously
reinforced composites. For discontinuously reinforced composites, the matrix may govern composite
strength.
 Then, the choice of matrix will be influenced by consideration of the required composite strength and
higher strength matrix alloys may be required.
 Additional considerations in the choice of the matrix include potential reinforcement/matrix reactions,
either during processing or in service, which might result in degraded composite performance, thermal
stresses due to thermal expansion mismatch between the reinforcements and the matrix and the
influence of matrix fatigue behavior on the cyclic response of the composite.
 Indeed, the behavior of composites under cyclic loading conditions is an area requiring special
consideration. In composites intended for use at elevated temperatures, an additional consideration is
the difference in melting temperatures between the matrix and the reinforcements.
 A large melting temperature difference may result in matrix creep while the reinforcements remain
elastic, even at temperatures approaching the matrix melting point.
 However, creep in both the matrix and reinforcement must be considered when there is a small melting
point difference in the composite.

Functions of a Matrix
In a composite material, the matrix material serves the following functions:
 Holds the fibres together.
 Protects the fibres from environment.
 Distributes the loads evenly between fibres so that all fibres are subjected to the same amount of strain.
 Enhances transverse properties of a laminate.
 Improves impact and fracture resistance of a component.
 Helps to avoid propagation of crack growth through the fibres by providing alternate failure path along
the interface between the fibres and the matrix.
 Carry interlaminar shear.
 The matrix plays a minor role in the tensile load-carrying capacity of a composite structure. However,
selection of a matrix has a major influence on the interlaminar shear as well as in-plane shear properties
of the composite material.
 The interlaminar shear strength is an important design consideration for structures under bending loads,
whereas the in-plane shear strength is important under torsion loads.
 The matrix provides lateral support against the possibility of fibre buckling under compression loading,
thus influencing to some extent the compressive strength of the composite material.
 The interaction between fibres and matrix is also important in designing damage tolerant structures.
Finally, the processability and defects in a composite material depend strongly on the physical and
thermal characteristics, such as viscosity, melting point, and curing temperature of the matrix.

Desired Properties of a Matrix

The needs or desired properties of the matrix which are important for a composite structure are as follows:
 Reduced moisture absorption.
 Low shrinkage.
 Low coefficient of thermal expansion.
 Good flow characteristics so that it penetrates the fibre bundles completely and eliminates voids during
the compacting/curing process.
 Reasonable strength, modulus and elongation (elongation should be greater than fibre).
 Must be elastic to transfer load to fibres.
 Strength at elevated temperature (depending on application).
 Low temperature capability (depending on application).
 Excellent chemical resistance (depending on application).
 Should be easily processable into the final composite shape.
 Dimensional stability (maintains its shape).

 As stated above, the matrix causes the stress to be distributed more evenly between all fibres by
causing the fibres to suffer the same strain.
 The stress is transmitted by shear process, which requires good bonding between fibre and matrix and
also high shear strength and modulus for the matrix itself.
 One of the important properties of cured matrix system is its glass transition temperature (T) at which
the matrix begins to soften and exhibits a decrease in mechanical properties.
 The glass transition temperature is not only an important parameter for dimensional stability of a
composite part under influence of heat, but it also has effect on most of the physical properties of the
matrix system at ambient temperature.
 As the load is primarily carried by the fibres, the overall elongation of a composite material is governed
by the elongation to failure of the fibres that is usually 1-1.5%. A significant property of the matrix is that
it should not crack.
 The function of the matrix in a composite material will vary depending on how the composite is stressed.
 For example, in case of compressive loading, the matrix prevents the fibres from buckling and is,
therefore, a very critical part of the composite since without it; the reinforcement could carry no load. On
the contrary, a bundle of fibres could sustain high tensile loads in the direction of the filaments without a
matrix.
 Some of the physical properties of the matrix which influence the behaviour of composites are:
 Shrinkage during cure,
 Modulus of elasticity,
 Ultimate elongation,
 Strength (tensile, compressive and shear), and
 Fracture toughness.

Factors considered for Selection of Matrix

In selecting matrix material, following factors may be taken into consideration:
 The matrix must have a mechanical strength commensurate with that of the reinforcement i.e. both
should be compatible. Thus, if a high strength fibre is used as the reinforcement, there is no point using
a low strength matrix, which will not transmit stresses efficiently to the reinforcement.
 The matrix must stand up to the service conditions, viz., temperature, humidity, exposure to ultra-violet
environment, exposure to chemical atmosphere, abrasion by dust particles, etc.
 The matrix must be easy to use in the selected fabrication process.
 Smoke requirements.
 Life expectancy.
 The resultant composite should be cost effective.
The fibres are saturated with a liquid resin before it cures to a solid. The solid resin is then said to be the
matrix for the fibres

SELECTION OF REINFORCEMENTS
 Many processing methods are available now, by which reinforcement can be successfully incorporated
into a metal matrix.
 It is important to note that the right choice of processing method is just as important in terms of the
microstructure and performance of a component as it is for its commercial viability.
 However, before looking into the details of various processing options, it is worthwhile dwelling for a
moment on the selection of reinforcement. Clearly, the size, shape, and mechanical properties of the
reinforcing particles or fibers are of prime importance.
 A list of some important dispersed phases used in MMCs and their aspect ratio and diameter is given in
Table.

 There are many issues, which may need consideration while selecting the particulate material. Some of
them are density, cost, stiffness, thermal expansion, thermal/electrical conductivity, chemical
compatibility with the matrix during processing, and the formation of strong interfacial bond.
 SiC and alumina particles are the better choices, in terms of availability and cost, and they are also quite
attractive in terms of relevant mechanical properties. While ceramics are in general electrical insulators,
the thermal conductivity of some of the ceramics is comparable or even greater than metals.
 The thermal conductivities of SiC, aluminum nitride, and diamond are reasonably high. In these
materials, heat can be conducted by phonons as well as electrons, and phonon transport is favored by
light and stiff crystal lattice.
 Chemical reaction during processing can occur with some particulate materials used in composites.
Several reports concerning the reaction between SiC and aluminum melts are available. There is also
evidence for the reaction between SiC and Ti during solid-state consolidation.
 Reactions also occur between SiC and ferrous alloy matrices. Alumina is usually less reactive than SiC
in aluminum, but reacts quite strongly with titanium at elevated temperatures.
 Magnesium is rather different from Al and Ti, that is, it does not react readily with SiC, but it does react
with alumina.
 Surface treatments or coatings are normally given to fiber reinforcements to prevent reaction, whereas
particulates are usually used in the virgin state. Surface oxidation of nonoxideproblems with very fine
fiber like materials, which tend to form tenacious ball-like structures, and it is difficult to disperse them
uniformly and orient them in a controlled manner.
 Another major problem of whiskers concerns perceived health hazards. Whiskers in the submicron size
range can become airborne very easily and are likely to reach the lungs. Once they reach lungs, they
have similar effect as asbestos fibers.
 Hence, rigorous safety measures would be necessary during handling, and this led to strong
discouragement to further research and development activities.
 The diameter of the fibers is ranging from 5 to 30 μm. These fibers are flexible enough to produce
complex-shaped parts because of their small diameter.
 The fibers commonly used in MMCs are C, SiC, and various alumina-based fibers. Glass fibers and
organic fibers are not suitable for MMCs, since these fibers cannot survive at the elevated temperatures
used for MMC production.
 Melt infiltration may be a suitable process for this type of MMCs, although some problems arise with
unidirectionally aligned fibers.
 Carbon fibers are usually not preferred for MMCs, mainly because of the interfacial reaction during
processing and galvanic corrosion during service. Chemical reaction problems are less pronounced with
magnesium, since it does not form a stable carbide.
 Attempts have been made to prevent the reaction by giving a protective coating, such as titanium nitride
on carbon fibers, but it is a difficult and expensive process.
 SiC continuous fibers are not very common as SiC particulates and whiskers. Commercial SiC fibers are
available under trade name Nicalon which actually contain considerable amounts of free carbon and
silica.
 The presence of free carbon leads to excessive reaction with most metallic matrices during processing.
 There are a number of oxide fibers, which are fairly resistant to molten metals. Notable among these
fibers are polycrystalline alumina fibers, which have been primarily used in aluminum alloy matrices and
to a lesser extent in titanium alloy matrices.
 Commercial interest in continuous fiber-reinforced MMCs has remained low because of the difficulties
mentioned earlier, and they are used mainly in some specialized applications.
 Even though they can significantly improve the creep resistance and undergo minimum interfacial
reactions, the composites made with this type of fibers are prohibitively expensive.
 Often the choice between continuous and discontinuous reinforcements is relatively straightforward,
both in terms of performance and processing cost. However, within each category there exist wide
variations in reinforcement size and morphology.
 For example, consider SiC particulates; the most convenient form is the particles of 3–30 μm
diameter, which is cheap and relatively easy to handle.
 Extensive studies carried out on the influence of particle size on properties suggest a narrow size
distribution for better properties.
 It is also presumed that platelets or ribbons may have certain advantages over equiaxed particles.
Alumina is available in the form of platelets of aspect ratio 5–25 and diameter of the order of 10 μm.
 However, the benefits of changing the type or nature of the reinforcement must be clearly established, if
such a change is accompanied by increased processing or raw materials costs.

REINFORCEMENT-MATRIX INTERFACE
 The load acting on the matrix has to be transferred to the reinforcement via the interface. Thus
reinforcements must be strongly bonded to the matrix if their high strength and stiffness are to be
imparted to the composite.
 The fracture behaviour is also dependent on the strength of the interface. A weak interface results in a
low stiffness and strength but high resistance to fracture, whereas a strong interface produces high
stiffness and strength but often a low resistance to fracture, i.e., brittle behaviour.
 Other properties of a composite, such as resistance to creep, fatigue and environmental degradation,
are also affected by the characteristics of the interface. In these cases the relationship between
properties and interface characteristics are generally complex.
 The interface is important whether the reinforcement is in the form of continuous fibres, short fibres or
whiskers or particles, although the exact role of the interface may differ with the type of reinforcement.
 In some cases a distinct phase, produced by a reaction between the matrix and the reinforcement,
exists at the reinforcement-matrix interface.
 In other instances the interface can be viewed as a planar region of only a few atoms in thickness
across in which there is a change in properties from those of the matrix to those of the reinforcement.
Thus at the interface there is usually a discontinuity in chemical nature, crystal and molecular structure,
mechanical properties and other properties.
 The characteristics of the interface are determined by the discontinuity in properties and are therefore
specific to each reinforcement-matrix combination. The surface roughness of the reinforcement has also
to be considered.

Wettability
 Interfacial bonding is due to adhesion between the reinforcement and the matrix and to mechanical.
Clearly, for adhesion to occur during the manufacture of a composite the reinforcement and the matrix
must be brought into intimate contact.
 At some stage in composite manufacture the matrix is often in a condition where it is capable of flowing
and its behaviour approximates to that of a liquid. A key concept in this context is wettability.
 Wettability defines the extent to which a liquid will spread over a solid surface. Good wettability means
that the liquid (matrix) will flow over the reinforcement covering every 'bump' and 'dip' of the rough
surface of the reinforcement and displacing all air.
 Wetting will only occur if the viscosity of the matrix is not too high and if wetting results in a decrease in
the free energy of the system.

INTERACTION ZONE
 INTERFACIAL BONDING
 Once the matrix has wet the reinforcement, and is therefore in intimate contact with the reinforcement,
bonding will occur. A number of different types of bond may be formed.
 Furthermore, for a given system more than one bonding mechanism may be operative at the same time,
e.g., mechanical and electrostatic bonding, and the bonding mechanism may change during the various
production stages or during service, e.g., electrostatic bonding changing to reaction bonding.
 The type of bonding varies from system to system and depends on fine details such as the presence of
surface contaminants or of added surface active agents (coupling agents). Let us now discuss the main
features of the different bonding mechanisms.

(a) Mechanical bonding

 A mechanical interlocking or keying of two surfaces, as shown in Figure (a), can lead to a reasonable
bond.
 Clearly the interlocking is greater, and hence the mechanical bonding more effective, the rougher the
interface. Also any contraction of the matrix onto the reinforcement is favorable to bonding.
 The mechanical bond is most effective when the force is applied parallel to the interface, in other words,
the shear strength may be considerable.
 On the other hand, when the interface is being pulled apart by tensile forces the strength is likely to be
low unless there is a high density of with re-entrant angles.
 In most cases a purely mechanical bond is not encountered and mechanical bonding operates in
conjunction with another bonding mechanism.

(b)Electrostatic bonding
 Bonding occurs between the matrix and the reinforcement when one surface is positively charged and
the other negatively charged (Figure (b)).
 This leads to an electrostatic attraction between the components of the composite which will depend on
the difference in charge on their surfaces.
 Electrostatic interactions are short range and are only effective over small distances of the order of
atomic dimensions: the reader will therefore appreciate that it is essential that the matrix and
reinforcement are in intimate contact and that surface contamination and entrapped gases will decrease
the effectiveness of this bonding mechanism.

(c)Chemical bonding
 In the context of composite science, chemical bonding is the bond formed between chemical groups on
the reinforcement surface (marked X in Figure (c)) and compatible groups (marked R) in the matrix.
 Not surprisingly the strength of the chemical bond depends on the number of bonds per unit area and
the type of bond.

 It is thought that chemical bonding may account for the success of some coupling agents. For example
silanes are commonly employed for coupling the oxide groups on a glass surface to the molecules of a
polymer matrix.
 At one end (A) of the silane molecule a hydrogen bond forms between the oxide (silanol) groups on the
glass and the partially hydrolyzed silane, whereas at the other end (B) it reacts with a compatible group
in the polymer (Figure (d)).

(d) Reaction or interdiffusion bonding

 The atoms or molecules of the two components of the composite may interdiffuse at the interface to give
what is known as reaction or interdiffusion bonding.
 Forinterfaces involving polymers this type of bonding can, in simple terms, be considered as due to the
intertwining of molecules (Figure (e)).
 Many factors control the strength of this interface including the distance over which the molecules have
entwined, the extent of the entanglement of the molecules and the number of molecules per unit area of
interface.

Metal Matrix Composite (MMC) is a material consisting of a metallic matrix combined with a ceramic
(oxides, carbides) or metallic (lead, tungsten, molybdenum) dispersed phase.
 Aluminum Matrix Composites (AMC)
 Magnesium Matrix Composite
 Titanium Matrix Composite
 Copper Matrix Composites
 Properties of some Metal Matrix Composites

Aluminum Matrix Composites (AMC)

 This is the widest group of Metal Matrix Composites. Matrices of Aluminum Matrix Composites are
usually based on aluminum-silicon (Al-Si) alloys and on the alloys of 2xxx and 6xxx series.

Aluminum Matrix Composites (AMC) are reinforced by:

 Alumina (Al2O3) or silicon carbide (SiC) particles (particulate Composites) in amounts 15-70 vol%
 Continuous fibers of alumina, silicon carbide, Graphite (long-fiber reinforced composites)
 Discontinuous fibers of alumina (short-fiber reinforced composites)

Aluminum Matrix Composites are manufactured by the following fabrication methods:

 Powder metallurgy(sintering);
 Stir casting;
 Infiltration.

The following properties are typical for Aluminum Matrix Composites:

 High strength even at elevated temperatures
 High stiffness (modulus of elasticity)
 Low density
 High thermal conductivity
 Excellent abrasion resistance.

Aluminum Matrix Composites (AMC) are used for manufacturing automotive parts (pistons, pushrods,
brake components), brake rotors for high speed trains, bicycles, golf clubs, electronic substrates, high
voltage electrical cables.

Magnesium Matrix Composite

Magnesium Matrix Composites are reinforced mainly by silicon carbide (SiC) particles (particulate
composites)
The following properties are typical for Magnesium Matrix Composites:
 Low density;
 High stiffness (modulus of elasticity);
 High wear resistance;
 Good strength even at elevated temperatures;
 Good creep resistance.
Magnesium Matrix Compositesare used for manufacturing components for racing cars, lightweight
automotive brake system, aircraft parts for: gearboxes, transmissions, compressors and engine.

Titanium Matrix Composite

Titanium Matrix Composites are reinforced mainly by:
 Continuous monofilament silicon carbide fiber (long-fiber reinforced composites);
 Titanium boride (TiB2) and titanium carbide (TiC) particles (particulate composites).
Powder metallurgy (sintering) is used for fabrication of Titanium Matrix Composites.

The following properties are typical for Titanium Matrix Composites:

 High strength;
 High stiffness (modulus of elasticity);
 High creep resistance;
 High thermal stability;
 High wear resistance.

Titanium Matrix Compositesare used for manufacturing structural components of the F-16 jet’s landing
gear, turbine engine components (fan blades, actuator pistons, synchronization rings, connecting links,
shafts, and discs), automotive enginecomponents, drive train parts, general machine components.

Copper Matrix Composites

Copper Matrix Composites are reinforced by:
 Continuous fibers of carbon (**C**), silicon carbon (SiC), tungsten (W), stainless steel 304 (long-fiber
reinforced composites);
 Silicon carbide particles (particulate composites).
 Powder metallurgy (sintering) and infiltration technique are used for fabrication Copper Matrix
Composites.

The following properties are typical for Copper Matrix Composites:

 Low coefficient of thermal expansion
 High stiffness (modulus of elasticity)
 Good electrical conductivity
 High thermal conductivity
 Good wear resistance

Copper Matrix Composites are used for manufacturing hybride modules, electronic relays, electrically
conducting springs and other electrical and electronic components
 UNIT - IV

Polymer Matrix Production Methods – Bag Moulding, Compression Moulding, Pultrusion, Filament
Winding, Metal Matrix Composites - Fabrication methods – Solid State Techniques and Liquid
State Techniques
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 Polymer matrix composites (PMCs) - are the most common and widely used composites. In PMCs,
polymers are used as matrix material.
 PMCs consist of glass, carbon, or other high strength fibers as reinforcement in a thermoset or
thermoplastic matrix.
 The resulting materials are strong, stiff, and corrosion resistant. Polymer matrix composites offer several
advantages over traditional metals and alloys such as flexibility in design, easy processing and ability to
produce near net shape products.

Property Ceramic Metal Polymer

Density Low High Lowest
Hardness Highest Low Lowest
Ductility Low High High
Wear resistance High Low Low
Corrosion resistance High Low Low
Thermal conductivity Mostly Low High Low
Electrical conductivity Mostly Low High Low

POLYMER MATRIX PRODUCTION METHODS

Resin flow considerations
Resin flow in lay-ups depends on:
 Lay-up thickness
 Heating rate
 Pressure application rate
 Cure pressure sufficient to squeeze out excess resin from 16 – 32 lay-ups may be inadequate for 64-ply
lay-up.
 If heating rate is too high, resin may start to gel before excess resin is squeezed out from each ply.
 If the cure pressure is applied too early, excess resin loss would occur because of low viscosity in the
pre-gel period.
 If the cure pressure is applied after the gel time, the resin may not be able to flow in the bleeding cloth
because of high viscosity.
 Maximum cure pressure should be applied just before the resin viscosity in the top ply becomes
sufficiently low for the resin flow to occur.

Common defects of Bag Moulding:

 Voids
 Improper cure
 Defects related to ply lay-up
 Defects related to trimming operations
 Residual curing stresses
 Air, moisture, solvents absorbed/adsorbed during manufacturing
 Foreign matter, debris, broken filaments
 Filament crossovers

1. SPRAY LAY-UP

Description:
 Fibre is chopped in a hand-held gun and fed into a spray of catalyzed resin directed at the mould. The
deposited materials are left to cure under standard atmospheric conditions.

Material Options:
 Resins: Primarily polyester
 Fibres: Glass roving only
 Cores: None. These have to be incorporated separately

Typical Applications:
 Simple enclosures, lightly loaded structural panels, e.g. caravan bodies, truck fairings, bathtubs, shower
trays, some small dinghies.
Advantages:
 Widely used for many years.
 Low cost way of quickly depositing fibre and resin.
 Low cost tooling.

Disadvantages:
 Laminates tend to be very resin-rich and therefore excessively heavy.
 Only short fibres are incorporated which severely limits the mechanical properties of the laminate.
 Resins need to be low in viscosity to be spray able. This generally compromises their
mechanical/thermal properties.
 The high styrene contents of spray lay-up resins generally mean that they have the potential to be more
harmful and their lower viscosity means that they have an increased tendency to penetrate clothing.
 Limiting airborne styrene concentrations to legislated levels is becoming increasingly difficult.

2. WET/HAND LAY-UP

Description:
 Resins are impregnated by hand into fibres which are in the form of woven, knitted, stitched or bonded
fabrics.
 This is usually accomplished by rollers or brushes, with an increasing use of nip-roller type impregnators
for forcing resin into the fabrics by means of rotating rollers and a bath of resin.
 Laminates are left to cure under standard atmospheric conditions.

Materials Options:
 Resins: Any, e.g. epoxy, polyester, vinylester, phenolic
 Fibres: Any, although heavy aramid fabrics can be hard to wet-out by hand.
 Cores: Any.
Typical Applications:
Standard wind-turbine blades, production boats, architectural mouldings.

Advantages:
 Widely used for many years.
 Simple principles to teach.
 Low cost tooling, if room-temperature cure resins are used.
 Wide choice of suppliers and material types.
 Higher fibre contents and longer fibres than with spray lay-up.

Disadvantages:
 Resin mixing, laminate resin contents, and laminate quality are very dependent on the skills of
laminators.
 Low resin content laminates cannot usually be achieved without the incorporation of excessive
quantities of voids.
 Health and safety considerations of resins. The lower molecular weights of hand lay-up resins generally
mean that they have the potential to be more harmful than higher molecular weight products.
 The lower viscosity of the resins also means that they have an increased tendency to penetrate clothing.
 Limiting airborne styrene concentrations to legislated levels from polyesters and vinylesters is becoming
increasingly hard without expensive extraction systems.
 Resins need to be low in viscosity to be workable by hand. This generally compromises their
mechanical/thermal properties due to the need for high diluent/styrene levels.

BAG MOLDING
Bag molding process can be categorized, based on the method of application of external pressure, into
three groups
 Pressure bag molding
 Vacuum bag molding
 Autoclave molding
Pressure bag molding: Here pressures exceeding 1 bar are applied on the composite material being
processed.
Vacuum bag molding: In this process, the composite materials is subjected to vacuum to remove air
bubbles from the laminate. Post this stage, the material may be subjected to atmospheric pressure while
it undergoes curing process in an oven.
Autoclave molding: Here, the composite is subjected to vacuum pressures, and also elevated
pressures simultaneously, while it undergoes curing at elevated temperatures.
In this process, the part is enclosed in a bag connected to a vacuum pump. Further, the exterior of the
bag is subjected to pressures exceeding 1 bar.
 Finally, curing of the resin is initiated through raising the temperature of material by placing it in an
autoclave chamber.
In such a process, application of high pressure ensures increased removal of air and other volatiles,
increased wetting, and improved impregnation of fibers with resin.

VACUUM BAGGING

Description
 This is basically an extension of the wet lay-up process described above where pressure is applied to
the laminate once laid-up in order to improve its consolidation.
 This is achieved by sealing a plastic film over the wet laid-up laminate and onto the tool.
 The air under the bag is extracted by a vacuum pump and thus up to one atmosphere of pressure can
be applied to the laminate to consolidate it.

Materials Options
 Resins: Primarily epoxy and phenolic. Polyesters and vinyl esters may have problems due to excessive
extraction of styrene from the resin by the vacuum pump.
 Fibers: The consolidation pressures mean that a variety of heavy fabrics can be wet-out.
 Cores: Any.

Typical Applications
 Large, one-off cruising boats, racecar components, core-bonding in production boats.

Advantages
 Higher fiber content laminates can usually be achieved than with standard wet lay-up techniques.
 Lower void contents are achieved than with wet lay-up.
 Better fiber wet-out due to pressure and resin flow throughout structural fibers, with excess into bagging
materials.
 Health and safety: The vacuum bag reduces the amount of volatiles emitted during cure.
Disadvantages
 The extra process adds cost both in labour and in disposable bagging materials.
 A higher level of skill is required by the operators.
 Mixing and control of resin content still largely determined by operator skill.

PRESSURE BAG MOLDING

 The pressure forming process is closely related to vacuum forming. In this process, the air pressure
required is much higher as compared to the vacuum forming.
 The preheated plastic sheet is placed on the mold surface, and then air pressure is applied quickly
above the sheet as shown in figure.

 The high pressure is developed in between the softened sheet and the pressure box.
 Due to high pressure, the preheated plastic sheet can be deformed into the mold cavity in a fraction of a
second.
 The formed sheet is held in the mold cavity for cooling for a few seconds. The formed part thereby
solidifies and is ejected from mold cavity.
 Prototype parts can also be made using pressure forming process.

AUTOCLAVE MOULDING
 Autoclave molding technique is similar to vacuum bag and pressure bag molding method with some
modifications.
 This method employs an autoclave to provide heat and pressure to the composite product during curing.
In this method, prepregs are stacked in a mold in a definite sequence and then spot welded to avoid any
relative movement in between the prepreg sheets.
 After stacking the prepregs, the whole assembly is vacuum bagged to remove any air entrapped in
between the layers.
 The schematic of autoclave molding process is shown in figure. After a definite period of time when it is
ensured that all air is removed, the entire assembly is transferred to autoclave.
 Here, heat and pressure is applied for a definite interval of time. In this process, matrix is uniformly
distributed and intimate contact is achieved through proper bonding between fibers and matrix.
 After the processing, the assembly is cooled to a definite rate and then vacuum bag is removed. The
composite part is taken out from the mold.
 Initially, a release gel is applied onto the mold surface to avoid sticking of polymer to the mold surface.

Raw materials
Matrix- Epoxy, polyester, polyvinyl ester, phenolic resin, unsaturated polyester, polyurethane resin and
thermoplastic resins,
Reinforcement- Glass fiber, carbon fiber, aramid fiber (all these fibers may be in the form of unidirectional
mat, bidirectional (woven) mat, stitched into a fabric form, mat of randomly oriented fibers).

Application:
The process is mainly used in applications requiring high strength to weight ratio components such as
aircraft parts, marine, military, space craft and missiles.

Advantages
 This composite processing method allows high volume fraction of reinforcement in the composite part.
 This method is applicable for both thermoplastic and thermosetting polymer composites.
 High degree of uniformity in part consolidation, better adhesion characteristics between layers and good
control over resin and reinforcement is achieved.
 No void content in the finished part due to removing entrapped air through vacuum.
 If cores and inserts are used, there is better bonding of these attachments due to vacuum bag
processing.
 Complete wetting of fibers is achieved.
Disadvantages
 There is limitation on part size which depends upon autoclave size.
 It is a costly technique for composite processing.
 Rate of production is low and skilled labour is required in this process.

COMPRESSION MOULDING
 Compression Molding is a process in which a molding polymer is squeezed into a preheated mold taking
a shape of the mold cavity and performing curing due to heat and pressure applied to the material.
 The method is used mostly for molding thermosetting resins (thermosets), but some thermoplastic parts
may also be produced by Compression Molding.
 The method uses a split mold mounted in a hydraulic press.
 Compression molding process is one of the low cost molding methods as compared to injection molding
and transfer molding.

Working Principle
 In this process, the predetermined amount of charge of plastic material is placed in the lower half of a
heated mold cavity.
 The plastic material is preheated before inserting into the mold cavity to reduce the temperature
difference between the material and the mold cavity.
 The mold cavity is closed with upper movable half mold and pressure is applied to compress the
material in to the mold cavity.
 This causes the raw material to be squeezed out to take the shape of the mold cavity. The application of
the heat and pressure increases the polymerization process.
 Hence, plastic material is cured. The temperature of the mold cavity is usually in the range of 130-
200°C.
 Generally, the hydraulic pressure is required in the range of 7-25 MPa to squeeze the plastic material.
 The mold cavity is thencooled for sometimes so that molded plastic part gets solidified. The mould
cavity is then opened and the final product is taken out with the help of ejector pin.
 The molded part may require the finishing operation. In compression molding, the charge of plastic
material may be inserted into the mold cavity either as a powder, granules or as a preformed.
 The manufacturing cycle time (heating, cooling, and part ejection) may be long (about 1-6 minutes).
 For high production rate, it is desirable to have multi cavity molds. Compression mold cavity can also be
available in a wide variety of shapes and sizes, therefore plastic products can be manufactured into
different shapes and sizes.
There are four important factors to be considered before compression molding process:
 Amount of plastic material (charge)
 Heating time and melting temperature of plastic material
 Pressure required to squeeze the material in to the mold cavity
 Cooling time

Materials Used
 Different types of thermosets and thermoplastics materials can be used for compression molding
process.
 For example: Epoxies, Urea formaldehyde (UF), Melamine formaldehyde (MF), Phenolics (PF),
Polyester, Polyamide (PI), Polyamide-imide (PAI), Polyphenylene sulfide (PPS), Polyetheretherketone
(PEEK), Torlon, and Vespel.

Applications
 Compression molding process is used for manufacturing electrical and electronic equipments (electrical
wall receptacles, circuit breakers, television cabinets, radio cases, electric plugs and sockets, electrical
switch, fuse box, electricity meter housing), brush and mirror handles, trays, cookware knobs, clothes
dryer blower fan blade, cooking utensils, milling machine adjustment wheel.
 Water testing equipment buttons, dinnerware, appliance housings, aircraft main power terminal housing,
pot handles, dinnerware plates, automotive parts (such as hoods, fenders, scoops, spoilers, gears),
flatware, buttons, buckles, and large container. Compression molding is also suitable for heavy molding
applications.

Advantages
 Low initial setup costs and fast setup time
 Heavy plastic parts can be molded
 Complex intricate parts can be made
 Good surface finish of the molded parts
 Wastes relatively little material as compared with other methods
 The molding process is cheaper as compared to injection molding

Disadvantages
 Low production rate
 Limited largely to flat or moderately curved parts with no undercuts

PULTRUSION PROCESS
 Pultrusion is an automated, highly productive process of fabrication of Polymer Matrix Composites in form of
continuous long products of constant cross-section.

Pultrusion process:
 Reinforcing fibers are pulled from the creels. Fiber (roving) creels may be followed by rolled mat or fabric
creels. Pulling action is controlled by the pulling system.
 Guide plates collect the fibers into a bundle and direct it to the resin bath.
 Fibers enter the resin bath where they are wetted and impregnated with liquid resin. Liquid resin
contains thermosetting polymer, pigment, fillers, catalyst and other additives.
 The wet fibers exit the bath and enter preformer where the excessive resin is squeezed out from fibers
and the material is shaped.
 The preformed fibers pass through the heated die where the final cross-section dimensions are
determined and the resin curing occurs.
 The cured product is cut on the desired length by the cut-off saw.

Characterization Of Pultrusion Process

 High productivity.
 The process parameters are easily controllable.
 Low manual labor component.
 Precise cross-section dimensions of the products.
 Good surface quality of the products.
 Homogeneous distribution and high concentration of the reinforcing fibers in the material is achieved (up
to 80% of roving reinforcement, up to 50% of mixed mat + roving reinforcement).

Pultruded products
 Solid rods
 Hollow tubes
 Flat sheets
 Various types of beams including angle channels, hat sections, and wide-flanged beams.
Pultrusion is used for fabrication of Fiberglasses, Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer Composites and Kevlar
(aramid) fiber reinforced polymers.

Advantages:
 This can be a very fast, and therefore economic, way of impregnating and curing materials.
 Resin content can be accurately controlled.
 Fiber cost is minimized since the majority is taken from a creel.
 Structural properties of laminates can be very good since the profiles have very straight fibers and hig h
fiber volume fractions can be obtained.
 Resin impregnation area can be enclosed thus limiting volatile emissions.
 This is a low cost automated system where human involvement is least which produces high quality
products.
 The surface finish of the product is high as compared to other composite processing methods.
 The production rate is high as it is a continuous production process.
 It is a straight forward and simple process which does not require specific labour skills.
 Easy handling and low maintenance.

Disadvantages:
 Limited to constant or near constant cross-section components.
 Heated die costs can be high.
 The process is mainly suitable for constant cross sectional areas.
 Tapered and complex shapes can not be produced with this method.
 Control of fiber orientation is not possible in the pultrusion system.
 Thin wall parts can not be produced with this system.

Typical Applications:
 Beams and girders used in roof structures, bridges, ladders, frameworks.
 Products like solid rods, tubing, and long flat sheets are easily fabricated with pultrusion process.
 Simple and constant cross sectional structural sections such as channels, angled and flanged beams.
 Tool handles for high voltage work, and third rail covers for subways.

METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES (Fabrication methods)

SOLID STATE TECHNIQUES

 Solid state fabrication of Metal Matrix Composites is the process, in which Metal Matrix Composites are
formed as a result of bonding matrix metal and dispersed phase due to mutual diffusion occurring
between them in solid states at elevated temperature and under pressure.
 Low temperature of solid state fabrication process (as compared to Liquid state fabrication of Metal
Matrix Composites) depresses undesirable reactions on the boundary between the matrix and dispersed
(reinforcing) phases.
 Metal Matrix Composites may be deformed also after sintering operation by rolling, Forging, pressing,
Drawing or Extrusion. The deformation operation may be either cold (below the recrystallization
temperature) or hot (above the recrystallyzation temperature).
 Deformation of sintered composite materials with dispersed phase in form of short fibers results in a
preferred orientation of the fibers and anisotropy of the material properties (enhanced strength along the
fibers orientation).

There are two principal groups of solid state fabrication of Metal Matrix Composites:
 Diffusion bonding
 Sintering

DIFFUSION BONDING
 Diffusion Bonding is a solid state fabrication method, in which a matrix in form of foils and a dispersed
phase in form of long fibers are stacked in a particular order and then pressed at elevated temperature.
 The finished laminate composite material has a multilayer structure.
 Diffusion Bonding is used for fabrication of simple shape parts (plates, tubes).
Variants of diffusion bonding are roll bonding and wire/fiber winding:
 Roll Bonding is a process of combined Rolling (hot or cold) strips of two different metals (e.g. steel and
aluminum alloy) resulted in formation of a laminated composite material with a metallurgical bonding
between the two layers.
 Wire/fiber Winding is a process of combined winding continuous ceramic fibers and metallic wires
followed by pressing at elevated temperature.

SINTERING
 Sintering fabrication of Metal Matrix Composites is a process, in which a powder of a matrix metal is
mixed with a powder of dispersed phase in form of particles or short fibers for subsequent compacting
and sintering in solid state (sometimes with some presence of liquid).

 Sintering is the method involving consolidation of powder grains by heating the “green” compact part to
a high temperature below the melting point, when the material of the separate particles diffuse to the
neighboring powder particles.
 In contrast to the liquid state fabrication of Metal Matrix Composites, sintering method allows obtaining
materials containing up to 50% of dispersed phase.
When sintering is combined with a deformation operation, the fabrication methods are called:
 Hot Pressing Fabrication of Metal Matrix Composites
 Hot Isostatic Pressing Fabrication of Metal Matrix Composites
 Hot Powder Extrusion Fabrication of Metal Matrix Composites
 Hot Pressing Fabrication of Metal Matrix Composites
 Hot Pressing Fabrication of Metal Matrix Composites

HOT PRESSING FABRICATION OF METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES

Hot Pressing Fabrication of Metal Matrix Composites – sintering under a unidirectional pressure applied by
a hot press
 HOT ISOSTATIC PRESSING FABRICATION OF MMC
Hot Isostatic Pressing Fabrication of Metal Matrix Composites – sintering under a pressure applied from
multiple directions through a liquid or gaseous medium surrounding the compacted part and at elevated
temperature.

HOT POWDER EXTRUSION FABRICATION OF MMC

Hot Powder Extrusion Fabrication of Metal Matrix Composites – sintering under a pressure applied by an
extruder at elevated temperature.
 LIQUID STATE FABRICATION OF MMC
 Liquid state fabrication of Metal Matrix Composites involves incorporation of dispersed phase into a
molten matrix metal, followed by its Solidification.
 In order to provide high level of mechanical properties of the composite, good interfacial bonding
(wetting) between the dispersed phase and the liquid matrix should be obtained.
 Wetting improvement may be achieved by coating the dispersed phase particles (fibers). Proper coating
not only reduces interfacial energy, but also prevents chemical interaction between the dispersed phase
and the matrix.

The methods of liquid state fabrication of Metal Matrix Composites:

 Stir Casting
 Infiltration
 Gas Pressure Infiltration
 Squeeze Casting Infiltration
 Pressure Die Infiltration

STIR CASTING
 Stir Casting is a liquid state method of composite materials fabrication, in which a dispersed phase
(ceramic particles, short fibers) is mixed with a molten matrix metal by means of mechanical stirring.
 Stir Casting is the simplest and the most cost effective method of liquid state fabrication.
 The liquid composite material is then cast by conventional casting methods and may also be processed
by conventional Metal forming technologies.
 Stir Casting is characterized by the following features:
 Content of dispersed phase is limited (usually not more than 30 vol.%).
 Distribution of dispersed phase throughout the matrix is not perfectly homogeneous:

 There are local clouds (clusters) of the dispersed particles (fibers);

 There may be gravity segregation of the dispersed phase due to a difference in the densities of the
dispersed and matrix phase.
 The technology is relatively simple and low cost.
 Distribution of dispersed phase may be improved if the matrix is in semi-solid condition.
 The method using stirring metal composite materials in semi-solid state is called Rheocasting.
 High viscosity of the semi-solid matrix material enables better mixing of the dispersed phase.

INFILTRATION
 Infiltration is a liquid state method of composite materials fabrication, in which a preformed dispersed
phase (ceramic particles, fibers, woven) is soaked in a molten matrix metal, which fills the space
between the dispersed phase inclusions.
 The motive force of an infiltration process may be either capillary force of the dispersed phase
(spontaneous infiltration) or an external pressure (gaseous, mechanical, electromagnetic, centrifugal or
ultrasonic) applied to the liquid matrix phase (forced infiltration).

Infiltration is one of the methods of preparation of tungsten-copper composites.

The principal steps of the technology are as follows:

 Tungsten Powder preparation with average particle size of about 1-5 mkm.
 Optional step: Coating the powder with nickel. Total nickel content is about 0.04%.
 Mixing the tungsten powder with a polymer binder.
 Compacting the powder by a molding method (Metal injection molding, die pressing, isostatic pressing).
Compaction should provide the predetermined porosity level (apparent density) of the tungsten
structure.
 debinding.
 Sintering the green compact at 2200-2400F (1204-1315C) in Hydrogen atmosphere for 2 hrs.
 Placing the sintered part on a copper plate (powder) in the infiltration/sintering furnace.
 Infiltration of the sintered tungsten sceleton porous structure with copper at 2100-2300F (110-1260C) in
either hydrogen atmosphere or vacuum for 1 hour.

GAS PRESSURE INFILTRATION

 Gas Pressure Infiltration is a forced infiltration method of liquid phase fabrication of Metal Matrix
Composites, using a pressurized gas for applying pressure on the molten metal and forcing it to
penetrate into a preformed dispersed phase.
 Gas Pressure Infiltration method is used for manufacturing large composite parts.
 The method allows using non-coated fibers due to short contact time of the fibers with the hot
metal.
 In contrast to the methods using mechanical force, Gas Pressure Infiltration results in low damage of
the fibers.

SQUEEZE CASTING INFILTRATION

 Squeeze Casting Infiltration is a forced infiltration method of liquid phase fabrication of Metal Matrix
Composites, using a movable mold part (ram) for applying pressure on the molten metal and forcing it to
penetrate into a performed dispersed phase, placed into the lower fixed mold part.
 Squeeze Casting Infiltration method is similar to the Squeeze casting technique used for metal alloys
casting.

Squeeze Casting Infiltration process has the following steps:

 A preform of dispersed phase (particles, fibers) is placed into the lower fixed mold half.
 A molten metal in a predetermined amount is poured into the lower mold half.
 The upper movable mold half (ram) moves downwards and forces the liquid metal to infiltrate the
preform.
 The infiltrated material solidifies under the pressure.
 The part is removed from the mold by means of the ejector pin.
 The method is used for manufacturing simple small parts (automotive engine pistons from aluminum
alloy reinforced by alumina short fibers).

PRESSURE DIE INFILTRATION

 Pressure Die Infiltration is a forced infiltration method of liquid phase fabrication of Metal Matrix
Composites, using a Die casting technology, when a preformed dispersed phase (particles, fibers) is
placed into a die (mold) which is then filled with a molten metal entering the die through a sprue and
penetrating into the preform under the pressure of a movable piston (plunger).
 INJECTION MOLDING OF PLASTIC
 Injection molding is the one of the most commonly used manufacturing process for the plastic
components.
 It is used to manufacture thin walled plastic parts for a wide variety of shapes and sizes. In this process,
the plastic material is melted in the injection chamber and then injected into the mold, where it cools and
finally the finished plastic part is ejected.

Working Principle
 In this process, the plastic materials usually in the form of powder or pellets are fed from hopper into the
injection chamber.
 The “piston and cylinder” arrangement is used to forward the material inserted from the hopper in to the
injection chamber.
 The plastic material is heated in the injection chamber with the application of heating elements. The
cooling system is also used to maintain the temperature of the injection chamber.
 The molten plastic material is then injected into the mold cavity through a nozzle. The molded part is
cooled quickly in the mold.
 Thereafter, the final plastic part is removed from the mold cavity. The process cycle for injection molding
is very short, typically between 2 to 60 seconds.
 The complete injection molding process is divided into four stages: clamping, injection, cooling and
ejection.
Clamping:
 The two halves of the mold must be tightly closed, before the molten plastic material is injected into the
mold.
 One half of the mold is attached to the injection unit (nozzle) and other half is allowed to slide on the
guide ways.
 The force and the time required to close and open the mold depends upon the machine capability.
Injection:
 During this process, the plastic material is melted by the application of heat and forwarded through the
piston towards the nozzle and finally into the mold.
 The function of torpedo in the heating zone is to spread the molten plastic into the thin film. The molten
plastic is then injected into the mold cavity quickly.
Cooling:
 The injected molten plastic begins to cool as soon as it comes in contact with the mold surfaces. As the
molded part cools, it will solidify into the desired shape of the product.
Ejection:
 The molded part, which is attached to the rear half of the mold has to be ejected from the mold. When
the mold is opened, an ejector mechanism is used to push the part out of the mold. Force must be
applied to eject the plastic part because during cooling the molded part shrinks and adheres to the mold
surface.

The important process Parameters are:

 Injection Temperature and Pressure
 Shot volume, Mold temperature
 Cooling time, Ejection temperature, and Cycle time.

Injection molding defects:

 Flash, blister, warping, bubbles, unfilled sections, jetting, sink and ejector marks. These defects can be
eliminated by optimal selection of the process parameters.

Materials Used
The injection molding process can be used to process materials such as Acetal, Acrylic, Acrylonitrile
Butadiene Styrene (ABS), Polyamide (Nylon), polycarbonate, Polyester, Polyether Sulphone (PS),
Polyetheretherketone (PEEK), Polyetherimide, Polyethylene, Polyphenylene Oxide, Polyphenylene
Sulphide (PPS), Polypropylene (PP), Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC), and Elastomers.

Applications
 This process can be used to manufacture thin walled plastic housing products which require many ribs
and bosses on the interior surfaces.
 These housings are used in a variety of products including household appliances, electronics, and
automotive dashboards.
 It is also used to produce several daily use items such as tooth brushes or small plastic toys, many
medical devices, including valves and syringes.

Advantages
 Higher production rate
 Close tolerances on small intricate parts
 Minimum wastage of material
 Complex geometry can be easily produced

Disadvantages
 Tooling cost higher
 High setup cost
 Large undercuts can’t be formed

TRANSFER MOULDING
 Transfer molding process combines the principle of compression and transfer of the polymer charge. In
the transfer molding, polymer charge is transferred from the transfer pot to the mold.
 The mold is cooled and molded part is ejected. The schematic of transfer molding process is shown in
figure.
 In this process, the required amount of polymer charge is weighted and inserted into the transfer pot
before the molding process.
 The transfer pot is heated by the heating element above the melting temperature of the polymer charge.
The liquid charge is gravity filled through the sprue to the mold cavity.
 A “piston and cylinder” arrangement is built in the transfer pot so that the resin is squirted into the mold
cavity through a sprue. The plunger is also preheated in the transfer pot.
 The plunger is used to push the liquid polymer charge from the transfer pot into the mold cavity under
pressure. The mold cavity remains closed as the polymer charge is inserted.
 The mold cavity is held closed until the resin gets cured. The mold cavity is opened and the molded part
can be removed once it has hardened with the help of ejector pin.
 The sprue and gate attached to the molded part have to be trimmed after the process has been
completed

 The plunger is used to push the liquid polymer charge from the transfer pot into the mold cavity under
pressure. The mold cavity remains closed as the polymer charge is inserted.
 The mold cavity is held closed until the resin gets cured. The mold cavity is opened and the molded part
can be removed once it has hardened with the help of ejector pin.
 The sprue and gate attached to the molded part have to be trimmed after the process has been
completed
 This is used for mass production. It has short production cycle and smaller tolerances and more intricate
parts can be achieved.
 It produces more waste material; therefore it is the more expensive process. The mold cavity can be
made from metals such as aluminum or steel for larger production.

Materials Used
 Generally, thermoset plastics (such as epoxy, polyester, phenol-formaldehyde, vinyl ester, silicone) are
processed by transfer molding process, but certain thermoplastic materials can also be processed.

Applications
 This process is widely used to encapsulate items such as integrated circuits, plugs, connectors, pins,
coils, and studs.
 It is suitable for molding with ceramic or metallic inserts which are placed in the mold cavity. When the
heated polymer fills the mold it forms bonding with the insert surface.
 Transfer molding is also used for manufacturing radio and television cabinets and car body shells.

Advantages
 Fast setup time and lower setup costs
 Low maintenance cost
 Plastic parts with metal inserts can be made
 Design flexibility
 Dimensionally stable
 Uniform thickness of parts
 Large production rate

Disadvantages:
 Wastage of material
 Production rate lower than injection molding
 Air can be trapped in the mold

EXTRUSION OF PLASTICS
 Extrusion is a high volume manufacturing process. The plastic material is melted with the application of
heat and extruded through die into a desired shape.
 A cylindrical rotating screw is placed inside the barrel which forces out molten plastic material through a
die. The extruded material takes shape according to the cross-section of die.

Working Principle
 In this process, plastic material in the form of pellets or granules is gravity fed from a top mounted
hopper into the barrel.
 Additives such as colorants and ultraviolet inhibitors (liquid or pellet form) can be mixed in the hopper.
The plastic material enters through the feed throat and comes into contact with the rotating screw.
 The rotating screw pushes the plastic beads forward into the barrel. The barrel is heated using the
heating elements up to the melting temperature of the plastic.
 The heating elements are used in such ways that gradually increase the temperature of the barrel from
the rear to the front.
 There are three possible zones in a rotating screw i.e. feed zone, melting zone, and metering zone. In
the feed zone, the plastic beads melt gradually as they are pushed through the barrel.
 The plastic material is completely melted in the melting zone. A thermostat is used to maintain the inside
temperature of the barrel.
 The overheating of plastics should be minimized which may cause degradation in the material
properties. A cooling fan or water cooling system is used to maintain the temperature of the barrel during
the process.
 At the front of the barrel, the molten plastic leaves the screw and travels through a screen pack to
remove any contaminants in the molten plastic.
 The screens are reinforced by a breaker plate. The breaker plate assembly also serves to create back
pressure in the barrel.
 The back pressure gives uniform melting and proper mixing of the molten plastic material into the barrel.
After passing through the breaker plate, molten plastic enters into die.
 The die gives the desired shape of plastic product. An uneven flow of molten plastic would produce
unwanted stresses in the plastic product. These stresses can cause warping after solidification of molten
plastic.
 Plastics are very good thermal insulators and therefore it is very difficult to cool quickly. The plastic
product is cooled by pulling through a set of cooling rolls.

Materials Used
 The different types of plastic materials that can be used in extrusion process are Polyethylene,
Polypropylene (PP), Acetal, Acrylic, Nylon (Polyamides), Polystyrene, Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC),
Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS) and Polycarbonate.

Applications
 The extrusion process is used for manufacturing rods, plates and tubes, wire and cable coating, hose
liners, hose mandrels, filaments, sheet, multilayer film, medical packaging and food packaging, etc.

Advantages
 High production volumes
 Relatively low cost as compared with other molding process
 Design flexibility
 Short lead times
 Coating of wire can be done to achieves desired properties
 Continuous part can be produced

Disadvantages:
 Limited complexity of parts
 Uniform cross section can only be produced

BLOW MOLDING OF PLASTIC

 Blow molding is a manufacturing process that is used to produce hollow plastic parts by inflating a
heated plastic until it fills a mold and formed the desired shape.

Working Principle
 In this process, the thermoplastic in the form of small pellets or granules is first heated above the melting
temperature and molded into a preform using injection molding process.
 These preforms are used to feed into the blow mold. The preform is heated above the glass transition
temperature and formed into a hollow tube which is called parison.

 The parison is then clamped between two mold halves and inflated by high air pressure until it conforms
to the inner shape of the mold .
 The air pressure is required as 60 to 140 psi depending upon the material used. The preform is always
stretched from the center of the part during the process.
 This is a single stage process, as both preform manufacturing and bottle blowing are performed in the
same machine. The formed part solidified as it is cooled inside the mold. The mold halves are separated
and the final product is removed. Final part may be trimmed.
 Generally, mold can be made of metal. Cycle time depends upon the finished part wall thickness. If the
part wall thickness is 1.5 mm, the cycle time will be 40 to 50 seconds.

Process Parameters
 Amount of plastic material
 Melting temperature of plastic material
 Air pressure required
 Cooling time

Materials Used
Different types of thermoplastic material are used, for example: High Density Polyethylene (HDPE), Low
Density Polyethylene (LDPE), Polypropylene (PP), Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC),Polyethylene Terephtalate
(PET), and Polycarbonate (PC).

Applications
Different types of plastic products can be manufactured by this process such as bottles in different shape
and size, jars, and containers, ducting, fluid oil tanks, mugs, and toys.

Advantages
 Low tooling cost
 Fast production rates
 Ability to mold complex part with uniform thickness
 Little scrap generated
 Large hollow shape can be produced
 Produced parts can be recycle

Disadvantages
 Limited to hollow parts
 Thick parts can’t be manufactured
VACUUM BAG MOLDING
 This process is used for producing complex components in small numbers. Both large and small parts
can be made by this process.
 This process is useful to make aircraft parts, since the quality and reliability of the products made by this
process are very good. Actually, it is a consolidation process, in which prefabricated parts are
consolidated.
 In one case, the products are fabricated by hand lay-up process and then consolidated using vacuum
bag molding.
 In another case, the products are fabricated using prepregs, and the final consolidation is carried out by
vacuum bag molding. At present, vacuum bag molding technology is advanced and sophisticated.
Precise control of temperature, pressure, and other parameters is possible.

 The schematic of vacuum bag molding setup is shown in Figure. The mold is made of aluminum or steel
coated with poly-tetra-fluoro-ethylene (PTFE).
 Polyamide or polyester film can be used as release layer, if the mold is not coated with permanent
release coating. A peel ply is placed on top and bottom of the product to be molded, which is an optional
layer.
 It is usually a woven fabric made of polyamide, polyester or PTFE coated glass fabric. Peel ply renders
the cured laminate surface paintable or bondable to other components. A separator is placed on both
the sides of the laminate after peel ply.
 It allows the volatiles to escape and excess resin to bleed through. The separator can be a porous or
perforated fiber layer, usually made of fluorocarbon polymers.
 The degree of porosity or spacing of perforations determines the amount of resin flow out of the
laminate. A bleeder layer is used to absorb excess resin from the lay-up.
 Fabric made out of glass fiber or other absorbent materials can be used as bleeder. The amount of
bleeder material needed is determined based on its absorbency and the desired fiber volume fraction.

 Barrier film is a nonstick film. It is placed after the bleeder to control the resin flow. Polyamide or
cellophane films can be used as barrier. Some perforations in the barrier film can help to prevent the
clogging of excess resin in the bleeder.
 A breather film placed above the barrier film is used for the uniform application of vacuum all over the
area of the lay-up and removal of volatiles formed during curing.
 A loosely woven material made of glass, cotton, or jute fiber can be used as a breather film.The vacuum
bag is an impermeable layer made out of polyamide, neoprene rubberized cloth, or silicone rubberized
fabric.
 It applies pressure on the lay-up, when vacuum is generated by the vacuum pump. Autoclaves are used
for the resin systems requiring high temperature and pressure for curing.
 In that case, the bag material should be resistant to the temperature and pressure applied during the
autoclave process.
 The primary purpose of vacuum application is to reduce void content in the product. Vacuum lines of
capacity 4.45 × 10−4 m3 s−1 should be located approximately for every 0.23 m2of bag area.
 Care should be taken so that the volatiles formed during suction or curing reaction do not enter the
vacuum pump or the control valves.

AUTOCLAVE PROCESS
 The schematic of autoclave moulding process setup is shown in Figure. The mold surface is covered
with a PTFE-coated glass fabric separator. Plies are cut from the prepregs roll into the desired shape,
size, and orientation.
 The backup release film is removed from each ply before lay-up. The prepreg plies are laid-up in the
desired fiber orientation and sequence on the separator.
 A porous release cloth and a few layers of bleeder fabric are placed on the prepreg stack. The complete
lay-up is covered with a thin heat-resistant vacuum bag after placing another sheet of PTFE-coated
glass fabric separator and a caul plate.
 The entire assembly is transferred into a preheated autoclave where a combination of external pressure
and vacuum is applied to consolidate the plies. The cure cycle of an epoxy prepreg consists of two
stages. In the first stage, the temperature is increased up to 130°C and this temperature is maintained
for 60 min.
 During this period, the minimum viscosity is reached. The external pressure is applied on the prepreg
stack, which causes the excess resin to flow into the bleeder fabric.
 The resin flow is critical since it allows the removal of entrapped air and volatiles from the prepreg, which
reduces the void content in the cured laminate.
 At the end of the dwell, the autoclave temperature is increased to the curing temperature of the resin.
The temperature and pressure are maintained for 2 h or more till the resin is completely cured.
 At the end of the curing, the temperature is slowly reduced without reducing the pressure. After reaching
the room temperature, the pressure and vacuum are released and the laminate is removed from the
vacuum bag. If necessary, the laminate is post-cured at an elevated temperature in a hot-air oven.
 Face bleeding (normally to the laminate face) is preferred over edge bleeding when thin structures are
made by autoclave molding process.
 Face bleeding is more effective since the resin path before gelation is shorter in the thickness direction
than parallel to the surface.
 Tooling is less expensive for the autoclave molding than compression molding. Molds are required to
withstand only the curing conditions without any distortion or degradation.
 The thermal expansion coefficients of composites are generally low compared to the metallic tooling
materials. While heating, the tool expands more compared to the lay-up, and the uncured lay-up can
deform to that extent.
 During cooling, the tool shrinks more than the part and the cured laminate is rigid, but not rigid enough
to completely resist shrinkage. As a result, the final dimension of the part will be slightly larger than the
expected dimension.
 The recommended empirical correction for steel or nickel tools is to make the tool at 0.999 of the
engineering dimension and for aluminum tools at 0.998. These corrections are needed to ensure an
acceptable fit of mating composite parts.
 To avoid the problem of thermal expansion coefficient mismatch, graphite–epoxy molds can be used.
 UNIT - V
Micro mechanics and macro mechanics of composites, monotonic strength and fracture,
Fatigue and Creep, Applications of composites, Green composites and Nano composites.
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MACROMECHANICS:
Micromechanics: The study of composite material behavior wherein the material is assumed
homogeneous and the effects of the constituent materials are detected only as averaged apparent
properties of the composite material.

Micromechanics: The study of composite material behavior wherein the interaction of the constituent
materials is examined in detail as part of the definition of the behavior of the heterogeneous
composite material.

Basic Assumptions
The lamina:
Initially stress-free, macroscopically homogeneous linearly elastic, macroscopically orthotropic
The fibers:
Homogeneous, regularly spaced, linearly elastic, perfectly aligned, Isotropic, perfectly bonded
The matrix:
Homogeneous, Isotropic, linearly elastic, void-free

MONOTONIC STRENGTH
 Probably the most important factor in the development and use of MMCs is their improved strength
relative to the matrix materials, particularly at high temperatures.
 For this reason, the effects of the reinforcement-matrix interface on composite strength have been well
studied. The strength achieved for a given matrix material depends mainly upon satisfactory wetting of
the reinforcement by the liquid metal, with a strong bond being required for efficient load transfer.
 The greatest mechanical strength is given by continuous fibres. These composites are highly anisotropic
with maximum tensile strength in the fibre direction. The axial and transverse tensile strength generally
vary linearly with fibre volume fraction, although the effect on transverse tensile strength is much
smaller.
 For B/Al composites the axial tensile strength also increases when the B fibres are chemically polished.
The transverse tensile strength is not significantly affected.
 This effect is postulated to be due to a reduction in stress concentrations associated with reaction
products on the polished fibres.
 For whisker reinforced MMCs the tensile strength of the reinforcement-matrix interface Is not the
dominant factor in composite strength. The most important factor in determining ultimate tensile
strength is the choice of matrix alloy.
 The ultimate tensile strength for a whisker reinforced composite is frequently observed to be significantly
greater than the unreinforced material only at high temperature.
 The temperature dependence of the composite strength can thus be explained by the effect of
temperature on matrix properties.

FRACTURE AND ITS PREVENTION

What is meant by Fracture?
 Fracture is the mechanical failure of the material which will produce the separation or fragmentation of a
solid into two or more parts under the action of stresses.
 The understanding of various phenomenons of fracture is necessary to minimize and prevent the
fracture.

Cause of Fracture
The fracture is caused due to the presence of submicroscopic defects known as cracks. Then the initial
crack is propagated to cause complete failure.

Types of Fractures
The four important types of fractures are:
1. Brittle fracture,
2. Ductile fracture,
3. Fatigue fracture, and
4. Creep fracture.
Now we shall discuss the above types, in detail, in the following sections.

BRITTLE FRACTURE
Brittle fracture defined: A brittle fracture may be defined as a fracture which takes place by the rapid
propagation of crack with a negligible deformation.
 It may be noted that in amorphous materials such as glass, the fracture is completely brittle whereas in
crystalline materials, the fracture occurs after a small deformation.
 In crystalline materials, the fracture takes place normal to the specific crystallographic planes, called
cleavage planes.
 In polycrystalline materials, the fracture takes place along the grain boundaries.
 The tendency of the brittle fracture is increased with decreasing temperature and increasing strain rate.
 DUCTILE FRACTURE
Ductile fracture defined: Ductile fracture may be defined as the fracture which takes place by a slow
propagation of crack with appreciable plastic deformation.
When a ductile specimen is subjected to tensile stress, the stress-strain curve can be obtained as shown in
Fig.

FATIGUE FRACTURE
Fatigue fracture defined: The fatigue fracture is defined as the fracture which takes place under
repeatedly applied fatigue stresses.
 In other words, the behaviour of the materials subjected to fluctuating or repeated loads is called fatigue.

 Three main features that distinguishes the fatigue fracture are:

1. Loss of strength
2. Loss of ductility
3. Increased uncertainty in strength and service life.
 The fatigue fracture occurs at stresses well below the tensile stress of the materials.
 Fatigue must be considered in machine components subjected to continuously cyclic loading such as
motor shafts, bolts, springs, gear teeth, valves, turbine blades, airplanes, automobile and gas-engine
parts, suspension bridges, wire ropes and many others.
 Since 80 to 90% of the total failures of high-speed machine parts is due to fatigue, therefore the study of
fatigue failure is very important.

S-N Diagram
The S-N diagram can be obtained by plotting the number of cycles of stress reversals (N) required to cause
fracture against the applied stress level (S), as shown in Fig.
 It can be seen from the Fig. that the fatigue strength is more for steels than for non-ferrous metals (such
as aluminium) and their alloys.
 Fatigue stress (or fatigue strength): The stress at which a metal fails by fatigue is termed as fatigue
strength.
 Fatigue limit (or endurance limit): It is defined as the value of stress below which the material will not fail
even when it is loaded for infinite number of cycles.
 Fatigue life: It is the total number of cycles required to bring about final fracture under a given condition
of use.

Factors Affecting Fatigue Strength

 Fatigue strength is influenced by many factors such as chemical composition, grain size, and amount of
cold working.
 Fatigue strength is high at low temperatures and gradually decreases with rise in temperature.
 Environmental effects such as corrosion of the product by moisture decreases the fatigue strength.
 The design of the product also influences the fatigue strength. Because changes in shape/size may
change the stress gradients and residual stresses of the materials.

Prevention of Fatigue Failure

The following methods can be adopted to prevent the fatiguefailure.
 Use of good design to avoid stress concentration by eliminating sharp recesses and severe stress
raisers.
 Control of the surface finish by avoiding damage to surface machining, punching, stamping, shearing,
etc.
 Reduction of corrosion environmental effects by surface heat treatments like polishings, coatings,
carburizing, nitriding, etc.
 The material should have fine grain structure and also it should be free from residual stresses and
dislocations.
CREEP
 Creep defined: The creep is defined as the property of a material by virtue of which it deforms
continuously under a steady load.
 In other words, creep can be defined as the permanent deformation of a material under a steady load
as a function of time, usually at higher temperatures.
 The property of creep is important in:
a) The soft metals used at about room temperature such as lead coverings on telephone cables and white
metal bearings.
b) The metals used at high temperature such as furnace parts, turbine blades, pressure vessel parts,
rocket and missiles, supersonic jets, etc.
 When a material is subjected to a constant loading, then the time-dependent strain occurring under the
constant stress is known as creep.
 Some materials such as zinc, lead and tin creep more at room temperature. Some other materials such
as iron, nickel, and copper creep more at elevated temperatures only.
Creep Curve

Typical creep curve for a long time, and high temperature creep test
A creep curve shows the variation of the extension of a metal with time under different stresses. A typical
creep curve under constant nominal stress and constant temperature, is shown in Fig.

Different Stages in Creep Curve

The three distinct stages of a creep curve above Fig. are:
1. Primary creep: In this stage, the creep is mainly due to dislocation movement.
 The creep rate decreases with time.
 During this stage, the recovery effect is less than the work- hardening effect. Hence the creep rate
decreases logarithmically.
2. Secondary creep:During this stage, the rates of work hardening and recovery are equal, so the material
creeps at steady rate.
 For the above reason, secondary creep is usually termed as steady-state creep.
 Steady-state creep may be viscous or plastic in character, depending upon the state level and
temperature.
 It is the important part of the creep curve which is used to estimate the service life of the alloy.

3. Tertiary creep: In this stage, creep rate increases with time until fracture occurs.
 Generally the tertiary creep occurs due to necking of the specimen or grain boundary sliding.

Important Creep Related Properties

1. Creep strength: It is the constant nominal stress that will cause a specified creep extension in a given
time at a constant temperature.
2. Creep limit: It is defined as the maximum static stress that will result in creep at a rate lower than some
assigned rate at a given temperature.
3. Creep life: It is the time required for occurrence of creep fracture under a given static load.
4. Creep resistance: It is the resistance offered by the material for its continuous deformation under
steady load.

Factors Affecting Creep

1. Grain size: Grain size influences the creep resistance. Generally, coarse-grained materials exhibit
better creep resistance than fine-grained ones.
2. Thermal stability of the micro-structure: The material having greater thermal stabilities possess
greater creep resistance than the material with poor thermal stability.
3. Chemical reactions: Chemical reactions in materials seriously affect the creep rate.
4. Prior strain: Prior cold working or work-hardening has also a strong effect on creep. It increases the
creep resistance.

Prevention of Creep Fracture

The following methods can be adopted to prevent the creep failure.
 Use of coarse grained materials will avoid creep fracture.
 Strain hardening can be done to avoid creep fracture.
 The material should be free from any residual stresses and dislocations.
 Precipitation-hardened alloys can be used to avoid creep fracture.
 Heat treatment reduces the occurrence of creep fracture.

ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF COMPOSITE:

Advantages
 Composite materials exhibit superior mechanical properties such as high strength, toughness, elastic
modulus, fairly good fatigue and impact properties.
 As fibre composites are lightweight materials, the specific strength and specific modulus are much
higher than the conventional materials.
 In aerospace applications, the power-to-weight ratio is about 16 with composites compared to 5 with
conventional materials.
 The fabrication of composites to any desired shape and size can be achieved with ease.
 They exhibit good corrosion resistance.
 Assembly of components made of composites is much easy and quick. .
 They are not much sensitive to thermal shocks and temperature changes.

Limitations
The major drawbacks of using composites are:
 Higher cost than many conventional materials.
 Polymeric composites cannot be used for high temperature applications.

APPLICATIONS OF COMPOSITES
 This is a brief listing of current and proposed applications of composite materials in various branches of
industry. It is not intended to be comprehensive or all-embracing, but merely to give an indication of the
range of possibilities for designers.

1. Commercial aircraft
Used for air conditioning duct, radar dome, landing gear door, seats, floorings, window reveals, ceiling
panels, propeller blades, nose, wing body, elevators, ailerons, air brake, etc.

2. Military aircraft
Used for speed brake, rubber trunnion, forward fuselag, elevators, ailerons, landing gear doors, horizontal
stabilizers, etc.

3. Missiles
Used for remote piloted vehicles, filament wound rocket motors, wings, rotor cases, etc.

4. Space hardware’s
Used for antennas, struts, support trusses, trusses for telescopes, storage tanks for gases and fluids at
cryogenic temperatures, etc.

5. Automobile and trucks

Used for drive shafts, bumpers, door and window frames, starter motor commutators, body panels, radiator
and other hoses, timing and V belts, drive chains, etc.

6. Electrical and electronics

Used for microphone housing, miniature-electronic card holder, ribs to protect printed circuit boards,
parabolic antenna, etc ; electrical equipment’s- switch casings, cable and distribution cabinets, junction
boxes, etc.

7. Marine applications
Used for small boat hulls, sonar domes, masts, tanks, decks, submarine masts, spinnaker pole on the
racing yatch, plates in nuclear submarine lead acid batteries, etc.

8. Sporting equipments
Used for tennis rackets, golf club shafts; bicycle components such as wheel, frame, forks, handlebars,
pedal crank arms, package carriers, fenders, etc. gliders, boats, sail boards.

9. Aerospace
Air frames, Wing spars, Spoilers, Tail-plane structures, Fuel tanks, drop tanks, bulkheads, flooring,
helicopter rotor blades, propellers, and structural components, pressured gas containers, radomes, nose
and landing gear doors, fairings, engine nacelles (particularly where containment capability is required
for jet engines), air distribution ducts, seat components, access panels, and so forth.

10. Bio-Engineering
 Carbon-fibre-reinforced plastic and carbon components are in use for prosthetic purposes, such as in
orthopedic fracture fixation plates, femoral stems for hip replacements.
 Pyrolytic carbon is used to manufacture heart valve components

11. Other applications

Other applications include bridge building; joint implants, heart valves; leaf springs; chemical industries
application for storing aggressive chemicals; wine vats and pipelines for water and sewage; in reinforced
wood products, etc.
NANOCOMPOSITES
Definitions:
 Nano-composites are broad range of materials consisting of two or more components, with at least one
component having dimensions in the nm regime (i.e. between 1 and 100 nm).
 Nanocomposites consist of two phases (i.e nanocrystalline phase + matrix phase) Phase may be
 Inorganic-inorganic, inorganic-organic or organic-organic.
 Nanocomposite means Nano sized particles (i.e metals, semiconductors, dielectric materials, etc)
embedded in different matrix materials (ceramics, glass, polymers, etc).
General features of Nano composites:
 Nano composites differ from traditional composites in the smaller size of the particles in the matrix
materials.
Small size may cause:
 Physical sensivity of bulk materials to physical or mechanical energy
 Higher chemical reactivity of grain boundaries

Physical sensitivity:
 Small size effect
 Quantum confinement effect

Chemical reactivity:
 Higher gas absorption
 Increased nonstoichiometric
 Regrowth
 Rotation and orientation
 Sub graining
 Assembly

PHYSICAL SENSITIVITY
Small size effect:
 When the particle sizes in composite materials approach lengths of physical interaction with energy,
such as light wave, electromagnetic waves, and the periodic boundary conditions of coupling interaction
with energy would behave different from its microscopic counterparts, which results in unusual
properties
Quantum confinement effect:
 When electrons are confined to a small domain, such as a nanoparticles, the electrons behave like
"particles in a box" and their resulting new energy levels are determined by quantum confinement effect.
These new energy levels give rise to the modification ofoptoelectronic properties such as "blue shift"
light emitting diode

CHEMICAL REACTIVITY
Higher gas absorption:
 Large specific area of nanoparticle’s can easily absorb gaseous species Increased nonstoichiometric
phases:
 Nanomaterial’s easily form chemically unsaturated bonds and nonstoichiometric compounds
Re growth:
 Nanomaterial’s are probably easier to recrystallize and regrow in processing and service conditions than
traditional materials
Rotation and orientation:
 Crystallographic rotation and orientation of nanoparticles have been found in processing of nano
composites
Sub-grain:
 Nanoparticles enveloped into larger particles act as dispersed pinholes to divide the large particles into
several parts.
Assembly
 Nanoparticles are easy to aggregate and assemble in liquid or gaseous media.

NANOCO COMPOSITS MATERIALS

 Nano composites can be formed by blending inorganic nan clusters, fullerenes, clays, metals, oxides or
semiconductors with numerous organic polymers or organic and organometallic compounds, biological
molecules, enzymes, and sol-gel derived polymers.

CLASSIFICATION OF NANOCOMPOSITES
1. Ceramic based Nano composites
 Increase in the strength, hardness, and abression by refining particle size.
 Enhance ductility, touchness, formability, superplasticity by nanophase.
 Change electrical conduction and magnetic properties by increasing the disordered grain boundry
interface
2. Metallic based Nano composites
 Increased hardness, strength and superplasticity;
 Lowered melting point;
 Increased electrical resistivity due to increased disordered grain surfaces;
 Increased miscibility of the non-equilibrium components in alloying and solid solution;
 Improved magnetic properties such coercivity, superparamagnetsation, saturation magnetization and
magnetocolatic properties
3. Polymer based Nano composites.
 Electrical, optical, magnetic and catalytic properties an sing from the inorganic materials, and enhanced
thermal and mechanical stability originating from the polymeric matrix
 GREEN COMPOSITES
Introduction
 Ecological concerns have resulted in renewed interest in natural materials.
 Recyclability and environmental safety are becoming increasingly important to the introduction of
materials and products.
 Petroleum based products such as resins in thermoset plastics, are toxic and non-biodegradable.

Why do we need green composites?

 The resins and fibres used in the green composites are biodegradable, when they dumped,
decomposed by the action of microorganisms.
 They are converted into the form of H20 and C02. These H20 and C02 are absorbed into the plant
systems.
 Green composites combines plant fibres with natural resins to create natural composite materials.
BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS
Natural:
 Polysaccharides - Starch, Cellulose, Chitin, Pullulan, Levan, Konjac, Elsinan
 Proteins - Collagen/Gelatin Casein, Albumin, Fibrogen, Silks, Elastins, Protein from grains
 Polyesters - Polyhydroxyalkanoates
 Other Polymers - Lignin Natural Rubber

Fibres used in green composites:

Natural / biofibres may be classified in two broad categories:
 Non-wood fibres
 Wood fibres
 Natural fibres such as kenaf, flax, jute, hemp, and sisal have attracted renewed interest, especially as a
E glass fibre substitute in the automotive industry.
 The other fibres used are Coir (Coconut), Bamboo , Pineapple , Ramie

General Objectives
 To improve Mechanical properties
 To improve Moisture resistance
 To improve Thermal properties
 To improve Processability
To achieve these objectives without compromising the biodegradability.
To fabricate 'Green' Composites using the n and various reinforcing agents.

Methods of manufacturing composites

 Filament winding  Injection moulding
 Lay up methods  Vacuum bonding
 Resin transfer moulding  Autoclave bonding

Advantages of green composites over traditional composites:

 Less expensive.
 Reduced weight.
 Increased flexibility.
 Renewable resource.
 Sound insulation.
 Thermal recycling is possible where glass poses problems.
 Friendly processing and no skin irritation.

Composite Materials - TWO MARKS

1. What is a composite?
 A composite is structural materials that consist of two or more combined constituents that are
combined at a macroscopic level and are not soluble in each other.
 One constituent is called the reinforcing phase and the one in which it is embedded is called the
matrix. The reinforcing phase material may be in the form of fibres, particles, or flakes.
 The matrix phase materials are generally continuous.
 Examples of composite systems include concrete reinforced with steel and epoxy reinforced
with graphite fibres, etc.

2. What are advanced composites?

 Advanced composite materials are man-made composite materials. Theyinclude as resin, metal
or ceramic matrix composite systems reinforced with high strength,high modulus continuous or
discontinuous forms (such as continuous fibres, chopped fibres,whiskers or particles).
 The resultant material exhibits entirely distinct, but superior propertieswhich are not exhibited by
the constituting elements. Advanced composites are compositematerials that are traditionally
used in the aerospace industries.
 Theses composites havehigh performance reinforcements of a thin diameter in a matrix
material such as epoxy andaluminum.

3. What are natural composites? Give examples.

 The composite material that exists in nature is regarded as naturalcomposites.
 Examples of such composites include, wood (composed of cellulose and lignin), human or
animal body (composed of bones and tissues) or even rocks and materials.
 Bonesthemselves are composites made of two components, the organic and inorganic.
 Theorganic component consists largely of carbohydrates, fats and proteins imparting pliability
tothe bones.
 The organic component is calcium phosphate which provides rigidity and strengthto the bones.
Sea shells and elephant tusk are also natural layered composites.

4. What are the common types of composites?

 The most typical types of composites consist of an addictive or reinforcement such as fibres or
particles embedded in a supporting material called matrix.
 Usually these are structural materials but they can also be special materials such as electrical
conductors.Some composites have no matrix and are composed of one or more constituent
formsconsisting of two or more different materials.
 Laminates, for example, are composed entirelyof layers which taken together, give the
composite its form. Plywood with multiple plies withdifferent orientation of fibres is a typical
laminate composite.
 Sandwiches which arecomposed of a thick and light core material bonded on either side by a
thin strong facing arealso regards as composites.
 Many felts and fabrics have no body matrix but consist entirelyof fibres of several compositions
with or without bonding force.

5. What is a reinforced composite?

 A reinforced composite is one in which the primary purpose of the insert is tomprove the
mechanical properties of the composite. The insert is called reinforcement. Thecomposite is
formed is called reinforced composite.

6. What is Filled composite? Give some examples of fillers commonly used incomposites.
 A filled composite consists of an insert whose main function is to alter thephysical property
other than the mechanical properties. Such an insert is called filler.
 Addition of filler also reduces the cost of composite. Commonly used fillers include carbonblack,
calcium carbonate, mica, talc, barium carbonate, calcium sulphate, and china clay andglass
beads (also called spheres of glass).

7. What are the general requirements of all composite materials?

 All the composite materials must meet the following requirement.
 The reinforcing phase must be distributed uniformly throughout the matrixand the reinforced
particles and fibres must not be in direct contact withone another.
 The reinforcing phase must not react with the matrix at the servicetemperature as this will affect
the interfacial bond with the matrix.
 The reinforcing phase must not lose its strength and should be wellbonded to the matrix.
 Matrix must have lower modulus of elasticity as compared to thereinforcing phase.

8. List the various functions that a matrix phase performs in a composite material.
A matrix phase performs the following main functions:
 It binds the reinforcement in place in the structure and protects it frommechanical and chemical
damage that might occur by abrasion of theirsurface or by chemical attack or some extraneous
source.
 It separates the individual fibres and particles and deflects brittle crackthat otherwise can pass
across the entire cross section of the composite.
 The matrix takes the load and transfers it to the reinforcement in case offibre reinforced or
particle reinforced composites.
 The matrix also gives shape to the composite.In some instances the matrix controls the
electrical and chemicalproperties of the composite.

9. What is the role of a coupling agent present in the interface betweenreinforcement and
matrix?
 A matrix-reinforcement interface plays an important role in a composite asthe load is transferred
from matrix to the fibres through this interface.
 The eventualproperties of a composite are greatly dependent on the nature of the interface. The
desiredcharacteristics of the interface are controlled by a third material called the coupling
agent orcompatilizer.
 The coupling agent can overcome the weak interaction between the matrix andthe
reinforcement.
 The matrix and the reinforcement differ in their chemical nature andsurface characteristics but
the addition of coupling agent results in their association, leadingto improve strength of the
resultant composite.

10. Differentiate between dispersion strengthened and particle strengthened composites.

 Dispersion strengthened composites contain particles up to about 15% by volume having size
in the range 0.01µm to 0.1µm whereas the matrix of particle reinforced composites contains
particles in amounts from 15% to 40% by volume with size greater than1.0µm. in special cases,
particle content may be as high as 94%.
 In particulate composites both the matrix and particles share the load equally whereas the
matrix carries the major load in dispersion strengthened composites.

11. What is the basic principle used in the fibre reinforced composites?
 The basic principle used in fibre reinforced composites is that the materialsare generally
stronger in fibre form than in bulk form. This is due to the alignment of molecules along the fibre
axis.
 This preferred alignment makes the strength and modulus ofboth natural and synthetic fibres
superior to those of the same material in the randomlyoriented bulk form.
 That is why major part of the load is carried by the fibres and not by thebulk matrix. As fibres
are to carry the major portion of the applied load they should be much stronger and stiffer than
the matrix.
 This property is also desirable for preventing the fibresfrom buckling under compressive
stresses.

12. What are ‘whiskers’? Name some whiskers that are currently available.
 Whiskers are very fine single crystal materials with diameters of the order of submicron. Their
length may range from a fraction of a millimeter to several centimeters.
 The aspect ratio (i.e. the length to diameter ratio) of whiskers generally ranges from 50 to
10000.Due to verifying diameter they contain very few or no dislocations and their strength
approaches that of an ideal or perfect crystal (i.e. the theoretically achievable limit).
 Theirresistance against temperature and strain to failure are very much higher than
highperformance fibres. The elastic strain to fracture may be as high as 5%.
 However, they suffer from the problem of brittleness and are difficult process. Metals, oxides,
carbides, halides and organic compounds have been grown in whisker form. SiC, Si

13. Define Flake Composites.

 Flakes are often used in place of fibers as can be densely packed. Metal flakes that are in close
contact with each other in polymer matrices can conduct electricity or heat, while mica flakes
and glass can resist both.
 Flakes are not expensive to produce and usually cost less than fibers. Flake composites have a
higher theoretical modulus of elasticity than fiber reinforced composites.
 They are relatively cheaper to produce and be handled in small quantities.

14. Name the various grades of glass fibres used as reinforcement in glass
fibrereinforcement
plastic (GRP).
 There are three grades of glass fibres available for reinforcement in glassfibres reinforced
plastics. They are,
 E-glass (or electrical glass),
 C-glass and
 S-glass
15. Define Filled Composites.
 Filled composites result from addition of filler materials to plastic matrices toreplace a portion of
the matrix, enhance or change the properties of the composites.
 Thefillers also enhance strength and reduce weight. Fillers may be the main ingredient or
anadditional one in a composite.
 The filler particles may be irregular structures, or have precisegeometrical shapes like
polyhedrons, short fibers or spheres

16. What is a carbon-carbon composites produced?

 A carbon-carbon composite material consists of a carbonaceous matrixreinforced with carbon
fibres in the form of continuous filament yarns, cloth, chopped fibresor three dimensional woven
reinforcement.

17. What are aramid fibres?

 Aramid is the generic term for fibres produced from aromatic polyamides‟.
 Polyamides are long chain polymers containing aromatic rings or so called as benzene
rings.These rings recur repeatedly in the structure of aramid fibres.

18. How is carbon fibres produced?

 Carbon fibres are produced by pyrolysis of suitable carbonaceous productssuch as
polyacrylonitrile (PAN), pitch and staple rayon fibres called precursors.
 The processinvolved three stages, namely, stabilization, carbonization and graphitization.

19. List some typical ceramic matrix composite systems.

 Typical ceramic matrix composite systems include carbon-carbon composite,molybdenum
disulphide, Sic matrix/ carbon fibre composite, lithium alumino silicate matrix/ Nicalon (SiC)
fibre, and ceramic matrix/ glass fibre composite.

20. What are the advantages of thermo plastic matrices?

 Superior toughness.  Infinite Prepreg shelf life.
 Short moulding cycle.  Easy reparability.
 Capability of fusion bonding.  Reusability of scrap.

21. List the disadvantages of thermoplastic matrices.

 Higher temperature of processing.
 Relatively low heat resistance.
 Sensitivity to solvents.

22. What are the most common advanced composites?

 The most common advanced composites are polymer matrix composites (PMCs) consisting of
a polymer (e.g., epoxy, polyester, urethane) reinforced by thin diameterfibres (e.g., graphite,
aramid, boron).
 The reasons why they are the most commoncomposites include their low cost, high strength,
and simple manufacturing principles.

23. What are hollow microspheres?

 Hollow microspheresare essentially silicate based, made at controlled specific gravity. They
are larger than solid glass spheres used in polymers and commercially supplied in a wider
range of particle sizes.
 Commercially, silicate-based hollow microspheres with different compositions using organic
compounds are also available.

24. What are the drawbacks of polymer matrix composites?

 The main drawbacks of PMCs include low operating temperatures, highcoefficient of thermal
and moisture expansion, and low elastic properties in certaindirections.

25. What are the principal fibers used in commercial applications?

 The principal fibers in commercial use are various types of glass and carbonsas well as Kevlar
49.Other fibers, such as boron, silicon carbide, and aluminium oxide, areused in limited
quantities.

26. What are the influences of fiber in a composite laminates?

 Density
 Tensile strength and modulus
 Compressive strength and modulus
 Fatigue strength as well as fatigue failure mechanisms
 Electrical and thermal conductivities

27. What are the principal advantages of glass fibers?

 Low cost.  High chemical resistance.
 High tensile strength.  Excellent insulating properties.
28.Define the term ‘wettability’.
 The adhesion between the reinforcing fiber and the matrix in composite materials plays an
important role in the final mechanical properties of the material. It is calledas wettability.

29. Define Cermets/Ceramal.

 The Cermets is an abbreviation for the "'ceramic" and "metal." A Cermets is acomposite
material composed of ceramic (Cer) and metallic (Met) materials.
 Cermets areideally designed to have the optimal properties of both a ceramic, such as high
temperature resistance and hardness, and those of a metal, such as the ability to undergo
plasticdeformation.
 The metal is used as a binder for an oxide, boride, carbide, or alumina.

30. What are fiber metal laminates?

 Fiber-reinforced polymer laminas can also be combined with thin aluminium or other metallic
sheets to form metal-composite hybrids, commonly known as fiber metal laminates (FML).

31. What are coupling and coating agents?

 Coupling agents and coatings are applied on the fibers to improve their wetting with the matrix
as well as to promote bonding across the fiber matrix interface.
 Both in turn promote a better load transfer between the fibers and the matrix.
32. List various ceramic matrices.
 Aluminium oxide (Al2O3)
 Carbon, silicon carbide (SiC).
 Silicon nitride (Si3N4)

33. Why coupling agents are added with composites?

 Coupling agents are added to improve the wetting of fiber and promotebonding.

34. What are acrylics?

 Most acrylics are based on polymers of methyl methacrylate, that is, they arePolymethyl
methacrylate (PMMA) which may be modified by copolymerization or blendingwith other
monomers.
 Acrylics monomers MMA is a clear liquid made from acetone andsodium cyanide. On
polymerization, they normally become clear.
 They can also be obtainedby opaque varieties including fluorescent shades.
35. What are nylons and where does the name comes from?
 The popular groups of Polyamides (PA) resins are known as nylons. They areproduced by the
condensation reaction of diamine with dibasic acids or their derivatives.
 Depending on the number of carbon atoms on the amines or the acid components,
variousnylon designations are available. Examples are nylon 6, nylon 6/6, nylon6/10, etc.

36. Write the applications of nylons.

 Nylons are used great variety of household and industrial goods. Unbreakablecups and
saucers, bowls and tumblers are made in ivory luster nylons.
 Combs will notbecome toothless age, zip fasteners that is unaffected by dry cleaning and
doctors syringeare made of nylons.
 The typical industrial applications include unlubricated gears, cams,sleeve bearing, driving
belts, valves, automobile speedometer, textile machinery, etc.

37. What are polyesters? In what way they can be compared and contrasted
withPolyamides?
 Polyesters are the products obtained by the condensation of adipic acid andbi-functional
alcohols with removal of water.
 It is similar to polyamides in both condensationproducts and has the common monomers „acid
molecules‟.
 However the other monomer is alcohol instead of amines. Like nylon, polyester can be made
in the form of unbranchedthread like molecules (thermoplastics).

38. Give some applications of epoxies as coatings.

 Process equipment’s,tank and drum linings,can coatings,pipe linings, protective coatings for
the food industrywire coatings.

39. In what form is PET thermoplastic available?

 PET thermoplastic is available as film, fibre and blow moulded products. Theprocessing to
these forms leads to orientation or crystallization of molecular chain resultingin high strength
properties.

40. Give some uses of PET thermoplastics.

 PET thermoplastic is widely used to make the popular polyester thread alsoknown as Terylene
or Dacron used for sewing.
 Bi-axially oriented film, also known as myler isused as photo film, magnetic tapes, and
capacitors, cooking bags, food container packing andcoatings.

41. Write some applications of PEEK.

 PEEK is used as a coating and insulating material for high performancewiring, particularly
required for aviation and computer industries. PEEK filaments may beused for making cloths
for hot filtration purposes.

42. What are ladder polymers?

 Ladder polymers are double stranded polymer in which aromatic rings arefused together or
interconnected by links around which rotation cannot occurs except bybond breaking. If the
structure of ladder polymers is perfect, the chain could be broken only ifat least two bond on
the same rings were broken. Thus, ladder polymers exhibits greatthermal stability.

43. List the three classes of commercial polyesters.

 Saturated or thermoplastic polyestersUnsaturated or thermosetting polyester resins. The liquid
polyester resins called simply polyesters.

44. What are unsaturated polyesters?

 Unsaturated polyesters are thermosets composed of linear polyester polymercross-linked with
other monomers such as styrene. These are usually produced as solidmoulding compounds
and are called alkyds.

45. What are liquid polyester resins?

 Liquid polyester resins are converted into solid plastics by simply adding an organic peroxide
catalyst for polymerization or curing takes place. During the curing and before hardening, fillers
and reinforcements are added.

46 In what way epoxy are similar to unsaturated polyesters?

 Epoxy resins are similar unsaturated polyesters in that they are mixed with across linking
agent which makes them set by forming a molecular network structure.

47. In what forms epoxy are available?

 Epoxies are available in both liquid and solid forms. To produce solid forms,the epoxy resins
cured by using cross linking agents and catalyst or with hardenerscontaining active hydrogen
to develop the desired properties.
48. What properties make epoxies suitable for coatings?
 Toughness, Flexibility, Adhesion, Chemical resistance.

49. What is polymers?

Polymers are large, high-molecular-weight molecules produced by joining smaller molecules
called monomers.

50. Define Polymerization.

 Polymerizationis the process of forming a polymer by linking together of monomers.
 Two polymerizationmechanisms used are:
1. Addition polymerization, and
2. Condensation polymerization.

51. Explain the types of polymerization.

 Addition polymerization, also known as chain reaction poly-merisation, is a process by which
two or more chemically similar monomers are polymerised to form long chain molecules.
 Condensation polymerization, also known as step-growth poly-merisation, is the formation of
polymers by stepwise inter- molecular chemical reactions that normally involve at least two
different monomers

52. Define thermoplastics.

 Thermoplastics, also known as thermoplasts, are the plastics whose plasticity increases with the
increase in temperature.
 It means that thermoplastics soften (i.e., liquidity) when heated, and harden when cooled.
 Thermoplastics may be solidified and reheated as many time as desired. But their characteristics
remain the same.

53. DefineThermosetting Plastics

 Thermosetting plastics, also known as thermosets, are plastics which become permanently hard when
heat is applied and do not soften upon subsequent heating.
 That is, thermosetting plastics once set cannot be soften on heating. Thus they cannot be
remoulded/reshaped again and again.

54. Write short notes on filament winding?

 In a filament-winding process, a band of continuous resin-impregnated roving’s or
monofilaments is wrapped around a rotating mandrel and cured to produce axisymmetric
hollow parts.

55. What is compression moulding?

 Compression molding is used for transforming sheet-molding compounds (SMC) into finished
products in matched molds.
 The principal advantage of compression molding is its ability to produce parts of complex
geometry in short periods of time.
 Non-uniform thickness, ribs, bosses, flanges, holes, and shoulders, for example, can be
incorporated during the compression-molding process.

56. Give names of various polymers used in advanced polymer composites.

Epoxy, Phenolic, Acrylic Amino acids, Urethane Polyamide.

57. What are the types of filament winding patterns?

There are three types of patterns, they are
 Hoop or circumferential winding
 Helical winding
 Polar winding

58. Define epoxy.

 Epoxy resins are the most commonly used resins. They are low molecular weight organic
liquids containing epoxide groups. Epoxide has three members in its ring: one oxygen and two
carbon atoms.

59. What are prepregs?

 Prepregs are a ready-made tape composed of fibers in a polymer matrix. They are available in
standard widths from 3 to 50 in. (76 to 1270 mm).
 Depending on whether the polymer matrix is thermosets or thermoplastic, the tape is stored in
a refrigerator or at room temperature, respectively.
 One can lay these tapes manually or mechanically at various orientations to make a composite
structure.

60. Name the materials used in hand layup process.

 Materials: - Resins: Epoxy, Polyester, Vinyl ester, Phenolic etc. Fibers: Glass, Carbon, Aramid
or natural fibers.

61. What is the application of Bag molding process?

 The Bag- molding process is used predominantly in the aerospace industrywhere high
production rate is not an important consideration.

62. How is the maximum temperature inside the layup determined?

 The maximum temperature inside the layup depends on (a) the maximumcure temperature, (b)
the heating rate, and(c) the initial layup thickness.

63. Define blisters.

 Blisters are interlaminar cracks formed at the end of molding due to excessivegas pressure in
the interior region of the molded part.

64. What are the advantages of compression molding process?

 The principal advantage of compression molding process is its ability toproduce parts of
complex geometry in short periods of time.

65. What are the various defects present in the compression molded SMC part?
 The various defects present in the compression moulded SMC parts are,BlisterSurface pin
holesVoidsknit lineFiber bucklingInsertSink mark etc.,

66. What is warpage?

 Warpage is critical in thin- section moldings and is caused by variations incooling rate between
sections of different thickness or different fiber orientations.

67. Give some examples for pultruded parts?

 The common pultruded products are solid rods, hollow tubes, flat sheets, andbeams of a
variety of cross sections, including angles, channels, hat sections, and wide-flanged sections.

68. Write short notes on autoclave molding.

 Autoclave composite molding is a similar to pressure- bag and vacuum- bag molding but uses
a high- pressure chamber instead. The advanced composite process produces denser, void
free moldings because higher heat and pressure are used during curing.

69. What is meant by pressure vessel forming?

 Pressure-vessel forming is a method in which a pressure vessel is combined with integrally-
heated tooling.
 Pressure vessel forming has the following advantages:
 Since a pressure vessel is a less expensive piece of equipment, its size isnot limited by cost
and the production of large parts is easily feasible.
 Dry or Prepreg material forms.
 Matched die metal tools can be used (to control both part surfaces).

70. What is meant by match die forming?

 Matched-die forming is a most widely used forming system for thermoplasticsbecause it is
available and vary from small simply operated hand processes to largecomputer controlled
presses.
 (The dies used are generally made of metal which can beinternally heated and/or cooled. The
dies are designed to fixed gap of close tolerance.

71. What are the factors considered in match die forming?

 High forming pressure required for good solidation.High fabrication costs.Friction at die
interface.Long heating and cooling times.Non-uniform deformation/pressure, if thickness
mismatch exists.

72. What are the types of graphite crystals arrangement in carbon fibers?
 Arrangement of graphite crystals in a direction to the fiber axis: Circumferential. Radial.
Random. Radial-circumferential. Random-circumferential.

73. What are the two types from which the carbon fibers are manufactured?
 Carbon fibers are manufactured from two types of precursors (starting materials), namely,
textile precursors and pitch precursors.

74. What are the factors to be considered in selecting the types of manufacturing
process?
Factors considered for selection of most efficient manufacturing processare as follows:
 User needs  Labour
 Total production volume  Surface complexity
 Performance requirements  Materials
 Economic targets  Appearance
 Size of the product  Tooling/assembly
 Production rate
 Equipment
75. State the classification of manufacturing process.
Most widely used manufacturing methods for laminated fibre composites are as
follows:

(i) Open Mold Process

 Spray lay-up - Chopped roving and resin sprayed simultaneously, rolled.
 Hand lay-up - Lay-up of fibres or woven cloth, impregnate, no heat or pressure.
 Filament winding.
 Sheet molding compound.
 Expansion tool molding.
 Contact molding.

(ii) Closed Mold Process

 Compression molding – Load with raw material, press into shape
 Vacuum bag, pressure bag, autoclave - Prepreg laid up, bagged, cured
 Injection molding – Mold injected under pressure
 Resin Transfer – Fibres in place, resin injected at low temperature

(iii) Continuous Process

 Pultrusion
 Braiding

76. What do you mean by open mold processes? State its advantages and
disadvantages.
Open molding offers a number of process and product advantage over other high volume and
complex application methods.These include:
Advantages
 Freedom of design
 Easy to change design
 Low mold and/or tooling cost
 Tailored properties possible
 High strength large parts possible
 On-site production possible

Disadvantages
 Low to medium number of parts
 Long cycle times per molding
 Not the cleanest application process
 Only one surface has aesthetic appearance
 Operator skill dependent

77. Explain the Spray Lay-up technique.

 In a spray lay-up method, the fibre is chopped in a hand held gun and fed into a
spray of catalyzed liquid resindirected at the mold.
 The sprayed, catalyzed liquid resin will wet the reinforcement fibres, which are
simultaneously chopped in the same spray gun.
 The deposited materials are left to cure under standard atmospheric conditions.

78. What do you mean by In SituProcesses?

 In these techniques, the reinforcement phase is formed in situ. The composite
material is produced in one step from an appropriate starting alloy, thus avoiding the
difficulties inherent in combining the separate components as done in a typical
composite processing.
 Controlled unidirectional solidification of a eutectic alloy is a classic example of in
situ processing.

79. Explain the working principle of Filament Winding process.

 Filament winding is automated processes for creating parts of simple geometry
wherein continuous resin impregnated fibres are wound over a rotating male tool
called mandrel.
 A filament winding process where a continuous fibre roving passes through a
shuttle, which rotates and the roving is wrapped around a revolving or stationary
mandrel.
 Two basic types of filament winding are in use :
 the polar or planer method
 The high helical pattern winding

80. What is Sheet Molding Compound?

 Sheet molding compound (SMC) refers to both a material and a process for
producing glass fibre reinforced polyester resin items.
 The material is typically composed of a filled, thermosetting resin and a chopped or
continuous strand reinforcement of glass fibre. A SMC processing machine, produces
molding compound in sheet form.
 The glass fibre is added to a resin mixture that is carried onto a plastic carrier film. After
partial cure, the carrier films are removed.
 The sheet molding material is cut into lengths and placed onto matched metal dies under
heat and pressure.

81. State the advantages of Sheet Molding Compound.

Salient advantages of SMC molding process are as follows:
 High volume production.
 Excellent part reproducibility.
 Minimum material scrap.
 Excellent design flexibility.
 Parts consolidation.

82. What do you mean by Compression Molding?

 Compression molding is one of the oldest manufacturing techniques in the composites
industry.
 The recent development of high strength, fast cure, sheet molding compounds bulk molding
compounds and advancement in press technology is making the compression molding
process very popular for mass production of composite parts.
 Fully formed parts are molded in matched metal compression molds that give the final part
shape.
 In comparison with the injection molding process, better physical and mechanical properties
can be obtained in compression molding.

83. Explain Vacuum Bag molding?

 Bag molded (vacuum and pressure) composites provide higher performance that
results from optimization of process controls, design refinements and improved
materials.
 Vacuum bagging techniques have been developed for fabricating a variety of
aerospace components and structures. The process is principally suited to prepreg
 materials. This method utilizes a flexible film or rubber bag that covers the part lay-
up.
 The bag permits evacuation of the air to apply atmospheric pressure. The primary
limitation of this method is the limited pressure that can be applied.

84. What is Pultrusion process?

 Pultrusion is an automated process used to create shapes by pulling roving’s
through a shaped and heated die. The use of pultruded parts in aircraft is limited to
specialized applications.
 Practical applications are limited to constant cross-section parts. Pultrusion is used
to manufacture constant cross-section shapes, viz., I-beam, box, channels, tubing’s,
etc.

85. State the Advantages and disadvantages of pultrusion process.

Advantages
 Production is continuous.
 Material scrap rate is low.
 The requirement for support material is eliminated i.e., breathers. bleeder, cloth, separator
film,
 Bagging film, edge tape, etc.
 Labour requirements are low.
Disadvantages
 Limited to constant or near constant cross-section components.
 Heated die costs can be high.

86. What do you mean by Liquid-State processing of composite materials?

 Casting or liquid infiltration involves infiltration of a fibrous or particulate reinforcement
preform by a liquid metal. Liquid-phase infiltration of MMCs is not straight forward, mainly
because of difficulties with wetting the ceramic reinforcement by the molten metal.
 When the infiltration of a fiber preform occurs readily, reactions between the fiber and the
molten metal may take place which significantly degrade the properties of the fiber.
87. What do you mean by Squeeze casting process?
 Squeeze casting or pressure infiltration involves forcing a liquid metal into a fibrous or
particulate perform. Pressure is applied until solidification is complete.
 By forcing the molten metal through small pores of the fibrous preform, this method obviates
the requirement of good wettability of the reinforcement by the molten metal.
 Composites fabricated with this method have the advantage of minimal reaction
between the reinforcement and molten metal because of the short processing time
involved.

88. What do you mean by Diffusion Bonding?

 Diffusion bondingis a common solid-state processing technique for joining similar or
dissimilar metals. Inter diffusion of atoms between clean metallic surfaces, in contact
at an elevated temperature, leads to bonding.
 The principal advantages of this technique are the ability to process a wide variety of
metal matrices and control of fiber orientation and volume fraction.

89. What do you mean by Powder processing of composite material?

 Powder processingmethods in conjunction with deformation processing are used to
fabricate particulate or short fiber reinforced composites.
 This typically involves cold pressing and sintering, or hot pressing to fabricate primarily
particle- or whisker-reinforced MMCs.
 The matrix and the reinforcement powders are blended to produce a homogeneous
distribution. The blending stage is followed by cold pressing to produce what is called a
green body, which is about 80% dense and can be easily handled.

90. What is the difference between creep and fatigue?

 Creep and Fatigue are the phenomenon that lead to deformation and eventually
failure of Components.
 Fatigue is a situation in which component is subjected to cyclic loading. Yield stress
and ultimate stress of material are drastically reduced during fatigue.
 90 percent of machine components fail due to fatigue. For Example It is difficult to
break a wire by stretching but if we apply a cyclic load and bend unbend the wire a
number of times it breaks easily.
 Creep is a situation in which a component experiences deformation with time as t is
put into use. Best example to illustrate this is that electrical cables are taught(tight)
when they are installed but after some time they experience sagging due to self-
weight.

91. What are fatigue properties of composite material?

 The fatigue properties of a material represent its response to cyclic loading, which is
a common occurrence in many applications.

92. What are the variables influencing the cycle to failure?

 The cycle to failure depends on a number of variables, such as Stress level, stress
state, mode of cycling, process history, material Composition and environmental
conditions.

93. What is S-N diagram?

 Fatigue behavior of a material is usually characterized by an S-N diagram, which
shows the relationship between the stress amplitude or maximum stress and number
of cycles to failure on a semi logarithmic scale.

94. When will the number of cycles to failure increase?

 The number of cycles to failure increases continually as the stress level is reduced.

95. What is the common practice of specifying the fatigue strength of the
material?
 It is common practice to specify the fatigue strength of the material at very high
cycles, say, 10

96. What will be the effect of lower fatigue strength in flexure?

 The lower fatigue strength in flexure is attributed to the weakness of composites on
the compression side.
97. What is the effect of notches on fatigue strength?
 The fatigue strength of a fiber-reinforced polymer decreases with increasing
notchdepth as well as increasing notch tip sharpness. Stacking sequence also plays
animportant role in the notch effect in fiber-reinforced polymers.

98. What are the factors influencing strength of bonded joints?

 Factors (bonded joints): the ratio of lap length to substrate thickness, modulus
ofadhesives.

99. Write any two advantages of bonded composites.

 Distribute the load over a larger area than mechanical joints.
 Require no holes.
 Add very little weight to the structure.

100. Why failure theories are not applicable to composite materials?

 Fiber-reinforced polymers are not isotropic, nor do they exhibit gross yielding. Thus, failure
theories developed for metals or other isotropic materials are not applicable to composite
materials.
 Require machining of holes that interrupt the fiber continuity.
 May reduce the strength of the substrate laminates.
 4418161
B.Tech. DEGREE EXAMINATION, APRIL/MAY 2016
Seventh/Eighth Semester Mechanical Engineering
COMPOSITE MATERIALS (Prior to 2012 - 2013 Batches)
Time: Three hours
PART A — (10 x 2 = 20 marks)
Answer ALL questions.
1. State some of the composite materials exist in nature.
2. State a few application of composite materials.
3. What are Ceramics? Explain.
4. How the polymers are classified?
5. How are the composites processed?
6. Why the compression moulding is advantages than the other moulding process?
7. What is meant by Fatigue? Explain.
8. State some mechanical properties of composite materials.
9. Define Degree of "Polymerisation".
10. How the ceramics are classified?
PART B — (5 X 11 = 55 MARKS)
Answer ONE question from each Unit.
UNIT I
11. Why the composite materials are needed for the present conditions?
Or
12. Explain some of the properties of composite materials used in practice.
UNIT II
13. Explain briefly the "Thermoplastics" of polymers in detail.
Or
14. What are Whiskers? Explain its properties and usage in the practical field.
UNIT III
15. Explain the compression moulding processing of composites in detail.
Or
16. Explain the liquid state processing of composites in detail.
UNIT IV
17. State and explain the mechanical properties of some of the composite materials in
practice.
Or
18. Explain briefly the effect of environment on the Mechanical as well as physical
properties of materials.
UNIT V
19. Discuss briefly the composite materials for space applications.
Or
20. State some of the structural materials and their properties.

4418161
B.Tech. DEGREE EXAMINATION, NOVEMBER 2015.
Seventh/Eighth Semester Mechanical Engineering
COMPOSITE MATERIALS (2009-12 batches)
Time: Three hours
PART A — (10 x 2 = 20 marks)
1. What is a composite?
2. What is filled composite? Give some examples of fillers commonly used in composites.
3. What are thermosetting plastics? Give some examples.
4. What is the role of a coupling agent present in the interface between reinforcement and
matrix?
5. Explain Pultrusion process?
6. List the types of filament winding patterns.
7. What are the principal fibers used in commercial applications?
8. What are fatigue properties of composite material?
9. What is the importance of fibre orientation?
10. Give two application of composite material in thermal application.

PART B — (5 x 11 = 55 marks)
UNIT I
11. (a) What are the general requirements of all composite materials? (6)
(b) Explain how composite material is superior to conventional materials. (5)
Or
12. (a) Define composite materials. (4)
(b) Explain the classification of composites. (7)
UNIT II
13. (a) List the various functions that a matrix phase performs in a composite material. (5)
(b) Discuss the properties of various grades ofglass fibres used as reinforcement in glass fibre
reinforcement plastic (GRP). (6)
Or
14. (a) What are 'whiskers'? Explain properties ofsome whiskers that are currently available. (5)
(b) What are thermoplastics? Give some examples. (6)
UNIT III
15. With the help of neat sketch, explain filament winding technique. (11)
Or
16. Write short notes on
(a) Compression moulding. (5)
(b) Autoclave moulding. (6)
UNIT IV
17. Define fatigue and creep. And also discuss fatigue and creep behaviour of composite
materials.
(11) Or
18. Write short note on effect of environment on the properties of composite materials. (11)
UNIT V
19. Discuss the application of composite in Automobile and Aerospace field.
Or
20. Write short notes on
(a) Composite materials for dielectricapplication.(6)
(b) Composite materials for optical application. (5)

4418161
B.Tech. DEGREE EXAMINATION, NOVEMBER 2014
Eighth Semester Mechanical Engineering
COMPOSITE MATERIAL
Time : Three hours Maximum : 75
marks
PART A — (10 x 2 = 20 marks)
1. What are the ingredients of Composites?
2. What are the advantages of Composite materials?
3. What do you mean by thermoplastics? Give an example?
4. What are the various types of reinforcement materials?
5. List any two composite fabrication methods?
6. Which method is best suited for fabricating Composite Tubes?
7. List any four mechanical properties of Composites?
8. What do you mean by fatigue loading?
9. Which composite material is best suited for elevated temperature conditions?
10. What are the failures that occur in Composites materials?

PART B — (5x11 = 55 marks)

Answer FIVE questions choosing ONE from each unit.
 UNIT I
11. How are Composites classified? Discuss briefly?
Or
12. What are the important characteristics of fibers in high performance engineering
applications?
UNIT II
13. Explain any two commonly used Thermoset matrix materials?
Or
14. Explain any one process of how ceramic matrix composites are manufactured?
UNIT III
15. Explain the Pultrusion process with the aid of a neat sketch?
Or
16. Explain the filament winding process with the aid of a neat sketch?
UNIT IV
17. Explain the recommended test method for the evaluation of tensile strength of a composite?
Or
18. Sketch and explain the various modes of failure of a unidirectional lamina under
longitudinal compressive load?
UNIT V
19. What are the advantages of Composites in Structural design?
Or
20. What are the constraining factors for the design of laminated composites?

4418161
B.Tech. DEQREE EXAMINATION, APRIL/MAY 2014.
Seventh /Eighth Semester Mechanical Engineering
COMPOSITE MATERIALS
Time : Three hours
PART A — (10 x 2 = 20 marks)
1. Define composite materials.
2. State any four limitations of composite materials.
3. List out the various types of metal matrix composites.
4. Define reinforcement.
5. What do you mean by Bag moulding?
6. What is Filament winding?
7. Define creep.
8. What is fatigue?
9. Write any two applications of polymers.
10. What are the composites used for design of aircrafts?

PART B — (5x11 = 55 marks)

Answer ALL questions ONE from each unit.
UNIT I
11. (a) What is the need of composite? (5)
(b) Describe the various advantages of composites. (6)
Or
12. (a) What are the classification of composites? (4)
(b) Discuss the various general characteristics of composites. (7)
UNIT II
13. Discuss the properties and typical applications of any six thermoplastics in detail. (11)
Or
14. What is Metal Matrix Composites? Explain its structure and its applications. (11)
UNIT III
15. Explain any one solid state fabrication process with neat sketch. (11)
Or
16. Write short notes on
(a) Compression moulding. (5)
(b) Heat treatment of MMCs. (6)
UNIT IV
17. Mention the various mechanical properties of composites and discuss. (11)
Or
18. Describe the various effects of environment on the physical properties of composite
materials.
(11)
UNIT V
19. Elaborate the detailed procedure to select suitable composites for manufacturing
sector.(11)
Or
20. What are the design parameters to be considered to select the suitable composites for
marine industries? Discuss.(11)