Manufacturing Processes

Introduction
 Introduction

What is Manufacturing:

• Manufacturing is the application of physical and chemical processes to alter the

geometry, properties, and/or appearance of a given starting material to make parts
or products.
• Manufacturing also includes assembly of multiple parts to make products.
• The processes to accomplish manufacturing involve a combination of:
– Machinery
– Tools
– Power
– Manual labor
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Manufacturing Industries:
• Industries can be classified as:
– Primary industries

– Secondary industries
– Tertiary industries (service)
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Primary industries:
• Those that cultivate and exploit natural resources.
– Agriculture
– Forestry
– Fishing
– Livestock
– Quarries
– Mining
– Petroleum
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Secondary industries:
• Secondary industries take the outputs of the primary industries and convert them
into consumer and capital goods.
– Aerospace Apparel Automotive
– Basic metals Beverages Building materials
– Chemicals Computers Construction
– Consumer appliances ElectronicsEquipment
– Fabricated metals Food processing Glass, Ceramics
– Heavy machinery Paper Petroleum refining
– Pharmaceuticals Plastics (shaping) Power utilities
– Publishing Textiles Tire and rubber
– Wood and furniture
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Tertiary industries:
• It constitutes the service sector of the economy.
– Banking Communications Education
– Entertainment Financial services Government
– Health and medical Hotel Information
– Insurance Legal Real estate
– Repair and maintenance Restaurant
– Retail trade Tourism Transportation
– Wholesale trade
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Manufactured products:
• Consumer goods
• These are the products purchased directly by consumers such as:
– Cars Personal computers
– TVs Tennis rackets
– Shoes Fans, etc.

• Capital goods

• These are the products purchased by other companies to produce goods and supply
services, such as:
– Aircraft Mainframe computers
– Railroad equipmentMachine tools
– Construction equipment, etc.
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Discrete items/products:
• These are the individual parts and assembled products, such as:
– Cell phone Plastic chairs
– Computer mouse Washing machine
– Crank shaft Connecting rod
– Electric iron Wrench, etc.
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Continuous items/products:
• Products that are in bulk form and cannot be counted separately, such as:
– Cement Sugar
– Chemicals Beverages
– Paints Fertilizers
– Sheet metal coil Plastic raw material (powder and granular form), etc.
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Production quantity:

• Production quantity refers to the number of units of a given part or product produced annually by the

plant.

• The quantity of products made by a factory has an important influence on the way its people, facilities,

and procedures are organized.

• Annual production quantities can be classified into three ranges:

– Low production quantities

• 1 to 100 units per year

– Medium production quantities

• 100 to 10,000 units per year

– High production quantities

• 10,000 to Millions of units per year

 Introduction

Product variety:

• Product variety refers to the different product designs or types that are produced in a plant.

• Different products have different shapes and sizes and styles.

• They perform different functions.

• They are sometimes intended for different markets.

• Some have more components than others.

• When the number of product types made in a factory is high, this indicates high product
variety.

• There is an inverse correlation between product variety and production quantity.

• When product variety is high, production quantity tends to be low; and vice versa.
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Hard product variety:

• When products differ substantially.

• In an assembled product, hard variety is characterized by a low proportion of

common parts among the products; in many cases, there are no common parts.

• The difference between a car and a truck is hard.

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Soft product variety:

• When there are only small differences between products.

• There is a high proportion of common parts among assembled products.

• The difference between car models made on same production line tends to be soft.

• The variety between different product categories tends to be hard; the variety
between different models within the same product category tends to be soft.
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Production systems:
• They are used to manufacture products and the parts assembled into those
products.
• The production system is the collection of people, equipment, and
procedures organized to accomplish the manufacturing operations of a
company.
• Production systems can be divided into two categories:

1. Production system facilities

2. Manufacturing support systems

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Production system facilities:

– Factory

– Production machines and tooling

– Material handling equipment

– Inspection equipment, and

– The computer systems that control the manufacturing operations.

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Low quantity production:

• Production facility associated with this type of production quantity is job
shop.
• Job shop makes low quantities of specialized and customized products.
• The products are typically complex, such as space capsules, aircrafts, and
special machinery.
• Customer orders for these kinds of items are often special, and repeat
orders may never occur.
• Equipment in job shop is general purpose and labor force is highly skilled.
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• A job shop must be designed for maximum flexibility to deal with wide
part and product variations (hard product variety).
• If the product is large and heavy, difficult to move in factory, it remains in
a single location, at least during its final assembly.
• Workers and processing equipment are brought to the product, rather than
moving the product to the equipment.
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• This type of layout is called fixed-position layout.

• The individual parts that comprise these large products are often made in
factories that have a process layout.
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 Introduction

• In process layout, the equipment is arranged according to function or type.

• The lathes are in one department, the milling machines are in another
department, and so on.
• Different parts, each requiring a different operation sequence, are routed
through the departments in the particular order for their processing, usually
in batches.
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• The process layout is noted for its:

– Flexibility
– Machinery and methods are not designed for high efficiency

– Much material handling is required

– In-process inventory can be high
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Medium quantity production:

• Depending on product variety, two different types of facilities are used.
• When product variety is hard, batch production is used.
• Batch of one product is made, after which the facility is changed over to produce a
batch of next product, and so on.
• The changeover between production runs takes time, called the setup time or
changeover time.
• It is the time to change tooling and to setup and reprogram the machinery.
• It is lost production time, which is a disadvantage of batch production.
• The equipment is usually arranged in a process layout.
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• If the product variety is soft, cellular manufacturing is used.

• Extensive changeover may not be required between one product style and
the next.
• Groups of similar parts are made on the basis of similarities in design
attributes or the manufacturing attributes.
• Processing or assembly of different parts or products is accomplished in
cells consisting of several workstations or machines.
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• Each cell is designed to produce a limited variety of part configurations,

according to the principles of group technology.
• The layout is called cellular layout.
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High quantity production:

• It is also known as mass production.
• The production facility is dedicated to the manufacture of that product.

• Two categories of mass production can be distinguished:

– Quantity production

– Flow line production

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Quantity production:
• It involves mass production of single parts on single piece of equipment.
• The method of production typically involves standard machines such as
stamping press equipped with special tooling e.g. dies and material
handling devices.
• The typical layout used is process layout.
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Flow line production:

• It involves multiple workstations arranged in sequence, and the parts or assemblies
are physically moves through the sequence to complete the product.
• The collection of stations is designed specifically for the product to maximize
efficiency.
• The layout is called product layout, and the workstations are arranged into one long
line, or into a series of connected line segments.
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• The most familiar example of flow line production is the assembly line,
associated with products such as cars and household appliances.
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Manufacturing support systems :

• This is a set of procedures used by the company to manage production and to
solve technical and logistics problems encountered in ordering materials, moving
work through the factory, and ensuring that products meet quality standards.
• It consists of four functions:

1. Business functions

2. Product design

3. Manufacturing planning

4. Manufacturing control
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Business functions:
• It is the principal mean of communicating with customers.
• Including in this category are:

– Sales and marketing

– Sales forecasting

– Order entry
– Cost accounting

– Customer billing
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Product design:
• Product (customer design) : Design (customer)
• Product (customer specifications) : Design (manufacturer’s design department)
• Product (proprietary) : Design (responsibility of manufacturing firm)
• Design department of the manufacturing firm might include:
– Research and development

– Design engineering
– Drafting

– Prototype shop
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Manufacturing planning:
• It includes followings:
– Process planning
– Master scheduling
– Requirements planning
– Capacity planning
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Process planning:
• It consists of determining the sequence of individual processing and
assembly operations needed to produce the part.
• The manufacturing engineering and industrial engineering departments are
responsible for planning the processes and related technical details.
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Master scheduling:
• The authorization to produce the product must be translated into the master
production schedule.
• Master production schedule is the listing of:
– the products to be made

– when they are to be delivered

– in what quantities
• Months are traditionally used to specify deliveries in master schedule.
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Material requirement planning:

• Based on this schedule, the individual components and subassemblies that
make up each product must be planned.
• Raw materials must be purchased or demanded from storage.
• Purchase parts must be ordered from suppliers.

Capacity planning:
• It is concerned with planning the manpower and machine resources of the
firm.
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Manufacturing control:
• It is concerned with managing and controlling the physical operations in
the factory to implement the manufacturing plans.
• Included in the manufacturing control function are:
– Shop floor control

– Inventory control

– Quality control
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Shop floor control:

• It deals with the problem of monitoring the progress of the product as it is
being processed, assembled, moved, and inspected in the factory.
• Shop floor control is concerned with inventory in the sense that the
materials being processed in the factory are work-in-process inventory.
• Thus shop floor control and inventory control overlap to some extent.
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Inventory control:
• It attempts to strike a proper balance between:
– the danger of too little inventory and

– carrying costs of too much inventory

• It deals with such issues as deciding the right quantities of materials to
order and when to reorder a given item when stock is low.
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Quality control:
• The mission of quality control is to ensure that the quality of the product
and its components meet the standards specified by the product designer.
• Quality control depends on inspection activities performed in the factory at
various times during the manufacture of the product.
• Raw materials and components parts from outside sources are sometimes
inspected when they are received.
• Final inspection and testing of the finished product is performed to ensure
functional quality and appearance.
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Manufacturing capability:
• It refers to the technical and physical limitations of a manufacturing firm
and each of its plants.
• The several dimensions of this capability are:
– Technological processing capability

– Physical size and weight of the product

– Production capacity
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Technological processing capability:

• A plant’s technological processing capability is its available set of
manufacturing processes.
• Certain plants perform machining operations, others roll steel billets into
sheet stock, and others build automobiles.
• A machine shop cannot roll steel, and a rolling mill cannot build cars.

• Technological processing capability is closely related to material type.

• Certain manufacturing processes are suited to certain materials, while other
processes are suited to other materials.
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Physical product limitations:

• A plant with a given set of processes is restricted to certain size and weight limitations.
• Large, heavy products are difficult to move.
• To move these products about, the plant must be equipped with cranes of the required
load capacity.
• Smaller parts and products made in large quantities can be moved by conveyor or other
means.
• The limitation on the product size and weight extends to the physical capacity of the
manufacturing equipment as well (production equipment, material handling, storage
capacity, plant size).
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Production capacity:
• A third limitation is the production quantity that can be produced in a given time
period (e.g. month or year).
• This limitation is called plant capacity, or production capacity, defined as the
maximum rate of production that a plant can achieve under assumed operating
conditions.
• The operating conditions refer to the number of shifts per week, hours per shift,
direct labor manning levels in the plant, and so on.
• Plant capacity is usually measured in terms of output units, such as annual tons of
steel produced by a steel mill, or number of cars produced by a final assembly plant.
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Materials in manufacturing:
• Most engineering materials can be classified into one of three basic categories:

1. Metals
2. Ceramics
3. Polymers
4. Composites

• Their chemistries are different, their mechanical and physical properties are
dissimilar, and these differences affect the manufacturing processes that can be used
to produce products from them.
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Metals:
• Metals used in manufacturing are usually alloys, which are composed of
two or more elements, at least one of which is a metallic element.
• Metals can be divided into two basic groups:
– Ferrous metals

– Nonferrous metals
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Ferrous metals:
• Ferrous metals are based on iron; the group includes steel and cast iron.

• Alloys of iron and carbon form steel and cast iron.

Steel:
• It is an iron-carbon alloy containing 0.02 to 2.11% carbon.

• Its composition often includes other alloying elements as well, such as manganese,
chromium, nickel, and molybdenum, to enhance the properties of the metal.
• Applications of steel include construction (e.g., bridges, I-beams, and nails),
transportation (trucks, rails and rolling stock for railroads), and consumer products
(automobiles and appliances).
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Cast iron:
• It is an alloy of iron and carbon (2% to 4%) used in casting.
• Silicon is also present in the alloy (from 0.5% to 3%), and other elements
are also added to obtain desirable properties in the cast iron.
• Cast iron is available in several different forms, of which gray cast iron is
the most common.
• Its applications include blocks and heads for internal combustion engines.
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Nonferrous metals:
• Nonferrous metals include the other metallic elements and their alloys.
• In almost all cases, the alloys are more important commercially than the
pure metals.
• The nonferrous metals include the pure metals and alloys of aluminum,
copper, gold, magnesium, nickel, silver, tin, titanium, zinc, and other
metals.
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Ceramics:
• It is defined as a compound containing metallic (or semimetallic) and
nonmetallic elements.
• Typical nonmetallic elements are oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon.
• Traditional ceramics include:
• Clay (used in making brick, tile, and pottery)
• Silica (basis for all glass products)
• Alumina and silicon carbide (two abrasive materials used in grinding)
• Newer ceramics include carbides and nitrides.
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• Metal carbides such as tungsten carbide and titanium carbide (used as cutting
tool materials).
• Nitrides, metal and semimetal nitrides like titanium nitride and boron nitride
(used as cutting tools and grinding abrasives).
• Ceramics can be divided into crystalline ceramics and glasses.

• Different methods of manufacturing are required for the two types.

• Crystalline ceramics are formed in various ways from powders and then sintered.

• The glass ceramics can be melted and cast, and then formed in processes such as
traditional glass blowing.
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Polymers:
• A polymer is a compound formed of repeating structural units called mers.
• Polymers consist of carbon plus one or more elements such as hydrogen,
nitrogen, oxygen, and chlorine.
• Polymers divide into three categories:

1. Thermoplastic polymers

2. Thermosetting polymers
3. Elastomers
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Thermoplastic polymers:
• These can be subjected to multiple heating and cooling cycles without
substantially altering the molecular structure of the polymer.
• Common thermoplastics include:
– Polyethylene

– Polystyrene

– Polyvinylchloride
– Nylon
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Thermosetting plastics:
• These molecules chemically transform (cure) into a rigid structure upon
cooling from a heated plastic condition.
• Common thermosetting plastics include:
– Phenolics

– Amino resins

– epoxies
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Elastomers:
• These polymers exhibit significant elastic behavior; hence the name
elastomers.
• Elastomers include:
• Rubber

• Neoprene

• Silicon
• Polyurethane
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Composites:
• They are not separate materials, these are mixtures of the other three types.
• A composite is a material consisting of two or more phases that are
processed separately and then bonded together to achieve properties
superior to those of its constituents.
• Composite are found in nature (e.g., wood) and they can be produced
synthetically.
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• The synthesized type include:

• Fiber-reinforced plastic (glass fibers in polymer matrix)

• Epoxy-kevlar (polymer fibers of one type in matrix of second polymer)

• Cemented carbide (ceramic in a metal matrix)

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Manufacturing processes:
• They can be divided into two basic types:

Processing operations
• It transforms a work material from one state of completion to a more
advanced state that is closer to the final desired product.
Assembly operations
• It joins two or more components in order to create a new entity called an
assembly.
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Processing operations:
• A processing operation uses energy to alter a workpart’s shape, physical
properties, or appearance in order to add value to the material.
• The forms of energy include:
– Mechanical

– Electrical

– Chemical
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• Three forms of processing operations are:

Shaping operations
• Alter the geometry of the starting work material by various methods.

Property-enhancing operations
• Add value to the material by improving its physical properties without
changing its shape.

Surface processing operations

• Performed to clean, treat, coat or deposit material onto the exterior surafce
of the work.
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Shaping processes:

1. Solidification processes
• e.g., casting, molding

2. Particulate processing
• e.g., powder metallurgy

3. Deformation processes
• e.g., rolling, forging, extrusion

4. Material removal processes

• e.g., machining (turning, milling, drilling)

• e.g., grinding

• e.g., nontraditional processes (laser, electron beam, chemical erosion, electric discharge, electrochemical
energy)
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Property-Enhancing processes:
• Heat treatments
• Surface processing
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Heat treatments:
– Annealing
– Case hardening

– Precipitation strengthening
– Tempering

– Quenching
– Sintering
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Surface processing:

1. Cleaning
• chemical and mechanical processes to remove dirt, oil, and other contaminants from the
surface.

2. Surface treatments
• shot peening, sand blasting, diffusion, ion implantation

3. Coating and thin film deposition processes

a. Coating processes
• electroplating, anodizing, organic coating, porcelain enameling

b. Thin film deposition processes

• physical and chemical vapor deposition
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Assembly operations:
• Joining of two or more parts (permanently or semipermanently) to make a
new product.
1. Permanent joining processes:
• Welding, brazing, soldering, adhesive bonding

2. Semipermanently joining methods:

• Screws, bolts, threaded fasteners
• Rivets, press fittings, expansion fits