MSM Module 3

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Material Science & Metallurgy
Module 3
HEAT TREATMENT OF METALS
Definition:
Heat treatment is the process of heating and cooling metals to achieve desired
physical and mechanical properties through modification of their crystalline structure. The
temperature, length of time, and rate of cooling after heat treatment will all impact properties
dramatically. The most common reasons to heat treat include increasing strength or hardness,
increasing toughness, improving ductility and maximizing corrosion resistance.
Heat treating is a group of industrial and metalworking processes used to alter the physical,
and sometimes chemical, properties of a material. The most common application is
metallurgical. Heat treatments are also used in the manufacture of many other materials, such
as glass. Heat treatment involves the use of heating or chilling, normally to extreme
temperatures, to achieve a desired result such as hardening or softening of a material. Heat
treatment techniques include annealing, case hardening, precipitation strengthening,
tempering and quenching. It is noteworthy that while the term heat treatment applies only to
processes where the heating and cooling are done for the specific purpose of altering
properties intentionally, heating and cooling often occur incidentally during other
manufacturing processes such as hot forming or welding.
The heat treatment includes heating and cooling operations or the sequence of two or more
such operations applied to any material in order to modify its metallurgical structure and alter
its physical, mechanical and chemical properties. Usually it consists of heating the material to
some specific temperature, holding at this temperature for a definite period and cooling to
room temperature or below with a definite rate. Annealing, Normalizing, Hardening and
Tempering are the four widely used heat treatment processes that affect the structure and
properties, and are assigned to meet the specific requirements from the semi-fabricated and
finished components. Steels being the most widely used materials in major engineering
fabrications undergo various heat treatment cycles depending on the requirements. Also
aluminum and nickel alloys are exposed to heat treatment for enhancement of properties.
The purpose of heat treatment is to achieve the following objectives;
• To improve mechanical properties like tensile strength, impact resistance, ductility in

metals.
• To increase resistance of the metal to wear, heat, corrosion
• To increase the toughness or resistance to fracture of the metal
• To produce hard surface and tough interior portions
• To improve machinability
• To refine grain structure after hot working a metal.
• To remove strain hardening of a cold worked metal and to improve its ductility
• To improve magnetic and electrical properties.
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Stages of heat treatment are
• Heating
• Soaking
• cooling
HEATING
Heating is the first step in a heat-treating process. Many alloys change structure when
they are heated to specific temperatures. The structure of an alloy at room temperature can be
either a mechanical mixture, a solid solution, or a combination solid solution and mechanical
mixture.
SOAKING
Once a metal part has been heated to the temperature at which desired changes in its
structure will take place, it must remain at that temperature until the entire part has been
evenly heated throughout. This is known as soaking. The more mass the part has, the longer it
must be soaked.
COOLING
After the part has been properly soaked, the third step is to cool it. Here again, the
structure may change from one chemical composition to another, it may stay the same, or it
may revert to its original form. For example, a metal that is a solid solution after heating may
stay the same during cooling, change to a mechanical mixture, or change to a combination of
the two, depending on the type of metal and the rate of cooling. All of these changes are
predictable. For that reason, many metals can be made to conform to specific structures in
order to increase their hardness, toughness, ductility, tensile strength, and so forth
Types of heat treatment processes
There are many ways in which metals are heat treated. From the syllabus point of view the
following are the heat treatment processes only have been discussed in this chapter.
• Annealing
Full annealing
Process annealing
Stress relief annealing
Spheroidizing
• Normalizing
• Hardening
• Tempering
• Austempering
• Martempering
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• Surface hardening
a) Carburizing or case hardening
Solid or Pack carburizing
Liquid carburizing
Gas carburizing
b) Nitriding
c) Cyaniding
d) Induction hardening
e) Age or precipitation hardening
ANNEALING
Annealing refers to a wide group of heat treatment processes and is performed
primarily for homogenization, recrystallization or relief of residual stress in typical cold
worked or welded components. Depending upon the temperature conditions under which it is
performed, annealing eliminates chemical or physical non-homogeneity produced of phase
transformations. Few important variants of annealing are full annealing, isothermal
annealing, spheroidise annealing, recrystallization annealing, and stress relief annealing.
Annealing is a rather generalized term. Annealing consists of heating a metal to a specific

temperature and then cooling at a rate that will produce a refined microstructure. The rate of
cooling is generally slow. Annealing is most often used to soften a metal for cold working, to
improve machinability, or to enhance properties like electrical conductivity.
Ferrous alloys are usually either "full annealed" or "process annealed." Full annealing
requires very slow cooling rates, in order to form coarse pearlite. In process annealing, the
cooling rate may be faster; up to, and including normalizing. The main goal of process
annealing is to produce a uniform microstructure. Non-ferrous alloys are often subjected to a
variety of annealing techniques, including "recrystallization annealing," "partial annealing,"
"full annealing," and "final annealing." Not all annealing techniques involve recrystallization,
such as stress relieving.
Purpose of annealing
The purpose of annealing is to achieve one or more of the following objectives
• To relieve internal stresses induced by some primary processes
• To remove coarseness of grains
• Soften the metal so as to improve mach inability, formability and sometimes control
magnetic properties
Types of annealing
• Full annealing
• Process annealing
• Step relief annealing
• Spheroid zing annealing
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Full annealing
The term full annealing is used for the treatment that involves heating steel to its
austenitic state before subjecting it to very slow cooling, Full annealing process consists
of three steps. First step is heating the steel component to above A3 (upper critical
temperature for ferrite) temperature for hypoeutectoid steels and above A 1 (lower critical
0
temperature) temperature for hypereutectoid steels by 30-50 C the terms α, γ and Fe3C
refer to ferrite, austenite and cementite phases.
The second step is holding the steel component at this temperature for a definite holding
(soaking) period of at least 20 minutes per cm of the thick section to assure equalization
of temperature throughout the cross-section of the component and complete austenization.
Final step is to cool the hot steel component to room temperature slowly in the furnace,
which is also called as furnace cooling. The full annealing is used to relieve the internal
stresses induced due to cold working, welding, etc, to reduce hardness and increase
ductility, to refine the grain structure, to make the material homogenous in respect of
chemical composition, to increase uniformity of phase distribution, and to increase
machinability
Schematic representation of annealing operation
Purpose
To relieve internal stresses, improve ductility and grain grain refinement
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Process
The process consists of heating the metal above the upper critical temperature
holding it there for considerable time so that it becomes completely austenitic and then
allowing it to cool slowly in the furnace.slow cooling associated with full annealing
enables the austenite to decompose to form;
A pearlite + ferrite structure in case of hypo eutectoid steels

A pearlite + cementite structure in hyper eutectoid steels
The phase recrystallize compleately in this process and the structure is refined. The
metal gets softened with improved mechanical properties.
Holding or soaking time

Holding time deponds on the thickness or diameter of the component to be heat treated
Applications
Full annealing is used for low and medium carbon steels that will be machined or
experience extensive plastic deformation during forming operation.
Disadvantages
Process is time consuming due to slow cooling rates in the furnace
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Process Annealing
Isothermal annealing
Isothermal annealing consists of four steps. The first step is heating the steel
components similar as in the case of full annealing. The second step is slightly fast cooling
from the usual austenitizing temperature to a constant temperature just below A1. The third
step is to hold at this reduced temperature for sufficient soaking period for the completion of
transformation and the final step involves cooling the steel component to room temperature in
air. Figure depicts the heat treatment cycles of full annealing and isothermal annealing. The
terms α, γ, P, PS and PFrefer to ferrite, austenite, pearlite, pearlite starting and pearlite finish,
respectively.
Isothermal annealing has distinct advantages over full annealing which are given below.
1. Reduced annealing time, especially for alloy steels which need very slow cooling to
obtain the required reduction in hardness by the full annealing.
2. More homogeneity in structure is obtained as the transformation occurs at the same
time throughout the cross section.
3. Improved machinability and surface finish is obtained after machining as compared to
that of the full annealed components.
Isothermal annealing is primarily used for medium carbon, high carbon and some some of
the alloy steels to improve their mach inability.
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Heat treatment cycles of full annealing and isothermal annealing
Spheroidizing annealing
Spheroidise annealing is one of the variant of the annealing process that produces typical
microstructure consisting of the globules (spheroid) of cementite or carbides in the matrix of
ferrite. The following methods are used for spheroidise annealing Holding the steel
component at just below the lower critical temperature (A1) transforms the pearlite to
globular cementite particles. But this process is very slow and requires more time for
obtaining spheroidised structure. In this method, the thermal cycling in the narrow
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temperature range around A1 transforms cementite lamellae from pearlite to spheroidal.

Figure 4.7.4 depicts a typical heat treatment cycle to produce spheroidised structure. During
heating above A1, cementite or carbides try to dissolve and during cooling they try to re-form.
This repeated action spheroidises the carbide particles. Spheroidised structures are softer than
the fully annealed structures and have excellent machinability. This heat treatment is utilized
to high carbon and air hardened alloy steels to soften them and to increase machinability, and
to reduce the decarburization while hardening of thin sections such as safety razor blades and
needles.
Recrystallization annealing
Recrystallization annealing process consists of heating a steel component below A1
0 0
temperature i.e. at temperature between 625 C and 675 C (recrystallization temperature range
of steel), holding at this temperature and subsequent cooling. This type of annealing is
applied either before cold working or as an intermediate operation to remove strain hardening
between multi-step cold working operations. In certain case, recrystallization annealing may
also be applied as final heat treatment. The cold worked ferrite recrystallizes and cementite
tries to spheroidise during this annealing process. Recrystallization annealing relieves the
internal stresses in the cold worked steels and weldments, and improves the ductility and
softness of the steel. Refinement in grain size is also possible by the control of degree of cold
work prior to annealing or by control of annealing temperature and time.
Stress relief annealing

Stress relief annealing process consists of three steps. The first step is heating the cold
0 0
worked steel to a temperature between 500 C and 550 C i.e. below its recrystallization
temperature. The second step involves holding the steel component at this temperature for 1-2
hours. The final step is to cool the steel component to room temperature in air. The stress
relief annealing partly relieves the internal stress in cold worked steels without loss of
strength and hardness i.e. without change in the microstructure. It reduces the risk of
distortion while machining, and increases corrosion resistance. Since only low carbon steels
can be cold worked, the process is applicable to hypoeutectoid steels containing less than
0.4% carbon. This annealing process is also used on components to relieve internal stresses
developed from rapid cooling and phase changes.
Normalizing
Normalizing process consists of three steps. The first step involves heating the steel
component above the A3 cm temperature for hypoeutectoid steels and above A(upper critical
0 0
temperature for cementite) temperature for hypereutectoid steels by 30 C to 50 C The
second step involves holding the steel component long enough at this temperature for
homogeneous austenization. The final step involves cooling the hot steel component to room
temperature in still air. Due to air cooling, normalized components show slightly different
structure and properties than annealed components.
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The properties of normalized components are not much different from those of annealed
components. However, normalizing takes less time and is more convenient and economical
than annealing and hence is a more common heat treatment in industries. Normalizing is used
for high-carbon (hypereutectoid) steels to eliminate the cementite network that may develop
upon slow cooling in the temperature range from point Acm to point A1. Normalizing is also
used to relieve internal stresses induced by heat treating, welding, casting, forging, forming,
or machining. Normalizing also improves the ductility without reducing the hardness and
strength
Hardening
Different techniques to improve the hardness of the steels are conventional hardening,
martempering and austempering
Conventional hardening
Conventional hardening process consists of four steps. The first step involves heating
the steel to above A3 temperature for hypoeutectoid steels and above A1 temperature for
0
hypereutectoid steels by 50 C. The second step involves holding the steel components for
sufficient socking time for homogeneous austenization. The third step involves cooling of hot
steel components at a rate just exceeding the critical cooling rate of the steel to room
temperature or below room temperature. The final step involves the tempering of the
martensite to achieve the desired hardness. Detailed explanation about tempering is given in
the subsequent sections. In this conventional hardening process, the austenite transforms to
martensite. This martensite structure improves the hardness.
Following are a few salient features in conventional hardening of steel.
1. Proper quenching medium should be used such that the component gets cooled at a
rate just exceeding the critical cooling rate of that steel.
2. Alloy steels have less critical cooling rate and hence some of the alloy steels can be
hardened by simple air cooling.
3. High carbon steels have slightly more critical cooling rate and has to be hardened by
oil quenching.
4. Medium carbon steels have still higher critical cooling rates and hence water or brine
quenching is necessary.
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Fig Heat hardening process treatment cycle for conventional
Figure depicts the conventional hardening process which involves quenching and tempering.
During quenching outer surface is cooled quicker than the center. Thinner parts are cooled
faster than the parts with greater cross-sectional areas. In other words the transformation of
the austenite is proceeding at different rates. Hence there is a limit to the overall size of the
part in this hardening process
Martempering (marquenching)
Martempering process overcomes the limitation of the conventional hardening
process. Figure depicts the martempering process. This process follows interrupted
quenching operation. In other words, the cooling is stopped at a point above the martensite
transformation region to allow sufficient time for the center to cool to the temperature as the
surface. Further cooling is continued through the martensite region, followed by the usual
tempering. In this process, thetransformation of austenite to martensite takes place at the
same time throughout the structure of the metal part.
Fig Martempering followed by tempering
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Austempering
This process is also used to overcome the limitation of the conventional hardening
process. Figure depicts the austempering process. Here the quench is interrupted at a higher
temperature than for martempering to allow the metal at the center of the part to reach the
same temperature as the surface. By maintaining that temperature, both the center and surface
are allowed to transform to bainite and are then cooled to room temperature. Austempering
causesless distortion and cracking than that in the case of martempering and avoids the
tempering operation. Austempering also improves the impact toughness and the ductility of
the metal than that in the case of martempering and conventional hardening.
Heat treatment cycle for austempering
Tempering
The hardened steel is not readily suitable for engineering applications. It possesses
following three drawbacks.
• Martensite obtained after hardening is extremely brittle and will result in failure of
engineering components by cracking.
• Formation of martensite from austenite by quenching produces high internal stresses in
the hardened steel.
• Structures obtained after hardening consists of martensite and retained austenite. Both
these phases are metastable and will change to stable phases with time which
subsequently results in change in dimensions and properties of the steel in service.
Tempering helps in reduce these problems. Tempering is achieved by heating hardened steel
0 0
to a temperature below A1, which is in the range of 100 C to 680 C, hold the component at
this temperature for a soaking period of 1 to 2 hours (can be increases up to 4 hours for large
sections and alloy steels), and subsequently cooling back to room temperature. The
tempering temperature is decided based on the type of steel. Highly alloyed tool steels are
0 0
tempered in the range of 500 C - 600 C. Low alloy construction steels are tempered above
0
400 Cto get a good combination of strength and ductility. Spring steels are tempered between
3000C - 4000C to get the desired properties. Figure depicts the influence of tempering
temperature on the properties of steel. It is observed that the increase in the tempering
temperature decreases the hardness and internal stresses while increases the toughness
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Fig. Pack Carburizing
The heating of steel is sometimes used as a method to alter the carbon content. When
steel is heated in an oxidizing environment, the oxygen combines with the iron to form an
iron-oxide layer, which protects the steel from decarburization. When the steel turns to
austenite, however, the oxygen combines with iron to form slag, which provides no
protection from decarburization. The formation of slag and scale actually increases
decarburization, because the iron oxide keeps oxygen in contact with the decarburization
zone even after the steel is moved into an oxygen-free environment, such as the coals of a
forge. Thus, the carbon atoms begin combining with the surrounding scale and slag to form
both carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide, which is released into the air.
Steel contains a relatively small percentage of carbon, which can migrate freely within the
gamma iron. When austenized steel is exposed to air for long periods of time, the carbon
content in the steel can be lowered. This is the opposite from what happens when steel is
heated in a reducing environment, in which carbon slowly diffuses further into the metal. In
an oxidizing environment, the carbon can readily diffuse outwardly, so austenized steel is
very susceptible to decarburization. This is often used for cast steel, where a high carbon-
content is needed for casting, but a lower carbon-content is desired in the finished product. It
is often used on cast-irons to produce malleable cast iron, in a process called "white
tempering." This tendency to decarburize is often a problem in other operations, such as
blacksmithing, where it becomes more desirable to austenize the steel for the shortest amount
of time possible to prevent too much decarburization.
Case hardening is specified by hardness and case depth. The case depth can be specified in
two ways: total case depth or effective case depth. The total case depth is the true depth of the
case. For most alloys, the effective case depth is the depth of the case that has a hardness
equivalent of HRC50; however, some alloys specify a different hardness (40-60 HRC) at
effective case depth; this is checked on a Tukon microhardness tester. This value can be
roughly approximated as 65% of the total case depth; however the chemical composition and
hardenability can affect this approximation. If neither type of case depth is specified the total
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case depth is assumed. For case hardened parts the specification should have a tolerance of at
least ±0.005 in (0.13 mm). If the part is to be ground after heat treatment, the case depth is
assumed to be after grinding. The Rockwell hardness scale used for the specification depends
on the depth of the total case depth, as shown in the table below. Usually hardness is
measured on the Rockwell "C" scale, but the load used on the scale will penetrate through the
case if the case is less than 0.030 in (0.76 mm). Using Rockwell "C" for a thinner case will
result in a false reading
Induction hardening
Induction hardening is a surface hardening technique in which the surface of the metal
is heated very quickly, using a no-contact method of induction heating. The alloy is then
quenched, producing a martensite transformation at the surface while leaving the underlying
metal unchanged. This creates a very hard, wear resistant surface while maintaining the
proper toughness in the majority of the object. Crankshaft journals are a good example of an
induction hardened surface.
Fig. Induction Hardening
The variation in the properties of the annealed

and normalized components
Annealed Normalised
•Less hardness, tensile strength and toughness. • Slightly more hardness, tensile strength
• Pearlite is coarse and usually gets resolved and toughness.
by the optical microscope. • Pearlite is fine and usually appears
• Grain size distribution is more uniform. unresolved with optical microscope.
• Internal stresses are least. • Grain size distribution is slightly less
uniform.
• Internal stresses are slightly more.
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Ferrous materials
INTRODUCTION:
Pure metals are used only for specific applications. They are very soft & malleable, have high
electrical conductivity & less resistant in atmospheric conditions.
❖ When these metals are combined with other elements, they show remarkable
improvement in their properties.
❖ The addition of other elements into a metal is called alloying, & the resulting metal is
called an alloy.
❖ An alloy can be defined as a homogeneous mixture of two or more metals, usually
prepared by melting them together & solidifying the mixture.
❖ Ex:steel [iron & carbon], brass[copper & zinc], bronze[copper & tin], duralumin
[aluminium & copper]
❖ All metals/alloys can be classified as ferrous & non-ferrous.
Steel
• It is a strong and can be readily formed in to desired shapes
• Its extensive property called ductility
• It is lustrous material having excellent surface finish
• Good conductor of electricity
• High density and high melting point
Steel Classification
• Carbon steels(plain carbon steels)
• Alloy steels
• Stainless steels
• Tool steels
Effect of alloying elements on properties of steel

• Carbon
• Manganese-impart strength and responsiveness to heat treatment (0.5%-2%)
• Chromium-increases response to heat treatment and good wear resistance and high
hardness (0.5%-1.5%)
• Nickel-increases strength and toughness in steels(1-4%)
• Phosphorus-resistance to atmospheric corrosion and brittleness (>0.05%)
• Copper-improve tensile strength (0.15-0.25%)
• Lead –improves mach inability (0.15-0.35%)
• Silicon- increases strength and hardness (1-2.5%)
• Tungsten-strong carbide former (17-20%)-impart excellent wear resistance too steels.
Definition ferrous and non ferrous metals
• Ferrous metals contain iron as the chief constituent. Various alloying elements like
sulphur, manganese, phosphorous etc are added small proportions to obtain
favourable properties.
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• Non-ferrous metals are those which do not contain iron, & include aluminium,
copper, magnesium, nickel, bronze etc.
• Ferrous alloys can be broadly classified into 2 groups- Steels & cast-iron.
• Steels are those alloys of iron & carbon which contain up to 2.1% carbon by weight.
• Cast-iron are those alloys in which contain carbon between 2.1% & 6.67%.
• Steel always have carbon in the combined form i.e., combined with iron to form passé
like α-ferrite, austenite, cementite etc..
• Cast-iron generally have carbon in the free form i.e., as graphite.[except white cast
iron]
STEELS:
• It can be classified in several ways.

1]Carbon[plain carbon steel] content:
[i] Low carbon [mild steels],

[ii] Medium carbon steels,
[iii] High carbon steel
[iv] Ultra high carbon steel.
[ii] Hypo eutectoid steels [ ‹ 0.8% C]
[iii] Hyper-eutectoid steels [› 0.8% C]
2] Method of manufacture:
i] Bessemer steel,
ii] Open-hearth steel,
iii] Electric furnace steel,
iv]Crucible steel.
3] Applications of steel
i] Machine steel,
ii] spring steel,
iii] boiler steel,
Iv] structural steel,
vi] tool steel
4] chemical composition:
Plain carbon steels & alloy steels
5] standard institutions:
i] AISI-American Iron & Steel Institute

ii] BIS-Bureau of Automotive Standards
iii] SAE-Society of Automotive Engineers
iv] ASTM-American Society for Testing & Materials
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1] PLAIN CARBON STEELS

Plain carbon steels can be classified once again according to the % of carbon.
A] low-carbon steel-0.03 to 0.25% carbon.
B] medium-carbon steel-0.25% to 0.59% carbons.
C] high-carbon steel-above 0.6 to 1% carbon
D] Ultra high-carbon steel- 1 to 2% C
By definition, Plain carbon steels contain only iron & carbon, they always come with traces
of sulphur & phosphorous & also sometimes small quantities of silicon & manganese.
LOW CARBON STEELS
Low-carbon steels: the charactestics of low-carbon steels are:

Composition-0.03 to 0.25% C
Properties- relatively soft & weak but outstanding ductility & toughness. They possess very
good machinabiliity & weld ability. Ex: Mild steel
Advantages- least expensive to produce.
Applications- automobile body components, structural shapes, buildings, bridges & small
cans.
The properties of low carbon steel depend on its microstructure.
Microstructure of low carbon steels
MEDIUM CARBON STEELS

Composition- from 0.25% to 0.59% C
Properties- stronger than low-carbon steel but less tougher than it.
Advantages- best range for alloying elements,
good mix of ductility & strength
Applications- railway wheels & tracks, gears, crank shafts & other machine parts.
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Microstructure of medium carbon steels
HIGH CARBON STEELS

Composition-0.6% to 1 % of C
Properties- hardest, strongest & least ductile when compared with low & medium carbon
steels.
Advantages-best range to make tool steels.
Disadvantages- cannot be used for operations where ductility & malleability are required.
Applications-knives, razors, hack-saw blades, high strength wire.
Microstructure of high carbon steels
ULTRA HIGH CARBON STEEL
❖ It contain approximately 1-2% carbon, & can be tempered to great hardness.

❖ Most steels more than 1.2% C content are made using powder metallurgy, & usually
fall in the category of ultra high alloy carbon steels.
❖ Materials made from this type of steels are used for non-industrial purposes.
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2] ALLOY STEELS
✓ Steels which acquire some characteristics properties due to the addition of alloying
elements, other than carbon, called as alloy steels.
✓ Alloying elements are added to steels for many purposes. Some of the reasons are to:
✓ Increase harden ability
✓ Improve strength at ordinary temperatures
✓ Improve wear & corrosion resistance
✓ Improve mechanical properties at either high or low temperatures
✓ Improve toughness without greatly sacrificing strength
Lists of alloy steels

• High-strength low-alloy steels
• Medium-alloy nickel-chromium steels
• Maraging steels
• Manganese steels
Types of alloy steels

• Structural steels
• Tool & die steels
• Magnetic alloys
• Stainless & heat-resisting steels
1] STRUCTURAL STEELS
• These are basically low-carbon steels with the carbon % between 0.15% to 0.3%.
These are used for ships, bridges & buildings.
Principal alloying elements

Silicon, copper, chromium, phosphorus & manganese
Characteristics of structural steels

A] Good yield strength
B] Enough ductility to avoid brittle fracture
C] Weld ability
D] Low cost
2] TOOL & DIE STEELS

• These are basically high quality special steels are used for cutting, forming & die
making purposes.
Different types of tool steels:
A] Water Hardening Tool Steels: They contain 0.7% to 1.3% carbon. They are used in
making drills, files, chisels, hammers & forging dies.
B] Shock resistant tool steels: these are chromium-tungsten, silicon molybdenum or silicon
manganese alloys. They are used in making tools, punches, chisels & dies & increase their
properties like toughness, to withstand repeated shocks.
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Hot worked tool steels: this tool used mainly for excessive heat applications like hot forging,
extruding & die casting
D] high speed steels: these steels are among the most highly alloyed of the tool steels &
usually contain large amounts of tungsten or molybdenum along with chromium &
vanadium.
❑ The carbon content varies between 0.7% & 1%.

❑ HSS have excellent wear resistance, good red hardness & reasonably good shock
resistance.
❑ The major applications for cutting tools, but they are also used for making extrusion
dies, burnishing tools, blanking punches & dies.
3. MAGNETIC ALLOYS
• These are basically made of the 3 magnetic materials namely iron, nickel &
cobalt.MA can be broadly classified into soft magnetic materials & hard magnetic
materials.
• Soft magnetic materials are those hysteresis loop gives a small area under the B-H
curve [flux density-magnetic field curve].
• These materials posses high permeability & are suitable for use in transformer cores.
• Ex: perm alloy [45% Ni], Supermalloy [79% Ni, 5% Mo]
• Hard magnetic materials are those which gives a large area under the B-H curve.
• They make permanent magnetic materials & are used for making magnetic poles for
alternators & motors.
• Ex: high carbon steel, Alnico [Al+Ni+Co+Fe], Cunife [ Cu+Ni+Fe]
High-strength low-alloy steels(>2%)

• These steels are developed for to as structural steels
• Composition-steel has 0.2%C,1.5%Mn,b/w 0.003and 0.1% of niobium and 0.003 and
0.1% of vanadium
• The high strength is achieved by not adding carbon instead by the addition of above
materials
Medium-alloy nickel-chromium steels(2-10%)

• These alloys widely used where moderate to high tensile strength and hardness
required
• Both chromium & nickel added to steel the limiting grain size property of nickel with
carbide forming property of chromium combine to to give widely used alloy steel
• Composition-0.1-0.55% C,1.0-4.75% of nickel,0.45-1.75%chr,0.3-0.8%Mn
Maraging steels
• Maraging steels are high strength and high high alloy steels.
• These steels can be precipitation hardened.
• Composition-18%Ni,7-8% Co,5%Molybdinum,0.5%Ti.
• Applications-aircraft carriage parts, punches and dies for forging, extrusion dies etc
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3] Stainless steels
Excellent corrosion resistance [because presence of chromium] & aesthetic [appearance or

beauty] properties have made as an outstanding material for both industrial & domestic
purposes.
Corrosion resistance may also be enhanced by nickel & molybdenum additions. Stainless
steels are divided into 3 classes on the basis of the predominant phase present in their
microstructure-
• Austenite,
• Ferrite ,
• Martensitic,
• PH steels,
• Duplex steels
A] Austenitic stainless steel

• Microstructure- predominately austenitic [even at room temperature]
• Composition- 18% chromium, 8% nickel, 0.15%C,or Mn in small amounts.
• Properties- non magnetic, non-heat treatable, high strength & hardness, wear resistant
• Grades available:18-10,18-0,18-8 etc
• Applications- chemical & food processing equipment, welding construction, kitchen
sinks, computer key board key springs.etc.
B] Ferrite stainless steel

• Composition- Here chromium content varies from 11.5% to 22% with negligible
amount of nickel and carbon content.
• Properties- magnetic, not-heat treatable, highly corrosion resistant but less durable
than austenitic.
• Applications- valves [[high temperatures], automotive exhaust components,
combustion chambers, hot water tanks,, computer floppy disc hubs etc.
C] Martensitic stainless steel

• Microstructure- predominantly Martensitic
• Composition- 12-14% chromium, 0-2% nickel, 0.2-1% molybdenum, 0.1-1% carbon.
• Properties- magnetic, not as corrosion resistant as compared to other two classes
• Extremely strong and tough as well as machinable & can be hardened by heat
treatment process.
• Applications- knife blades, shafts, spindles, Rifle barrels, jet engine parts, bearings,
surgical tools.
D] Precipitation hardening steels

These find their application in shafts for pumps and valves etc
These steels have been formulated so that they can be solution treated in which they are
machinable and hardened after fabrication
Page 20
E] Duplex steels
• These are mixed microstructure of austenite and ferrite
• These have improved strength and corrosion resisistance compared to austenitic steels
• Composition-19-28%Cr,5%Mb,low Ni than austenitic
• Applications –marine, heat exchangers, petrochemical plants
4] Tool steels
• Carbon steels & Alloy steels lack certain characteristics like toughness, red(hot)
hardness [this property is related to the resistance of the material to the softening
effect of heat] & hot strength, which forms the primary requirement in high-speed
cutting tool applications.
• Tools steels are capable for withstanding high loads & remain stable at elevated
temperatures.
• Tools steels are special class of steels that are primarily used to make tools in
manufacturing processes as well as for machining metals, wood & plastics.
The various types of steels classified under tool steels include:

• Cold work tool steels.
• Shock resistant tool steels
• High speed tool steels(HSS)
• Special purpose tool steels
AISI/SAE Designation Steel
• The American Iron & Steel Institute/Society of Automotive Engineers, has classified
according to their composition & has divided a numbering system to designate
different steels.
• AISI designation steels normally have 4 or 5 digits
• The first numerical always represents the type to which the steel belongs.
• The 1 indicates a carbon steel,
• The 2 indicates a nickel steel,
• The 3 indicates nickel-chromium steel etc.
BIS Designation Steels & Cast Iron
• The Bureau of Indian Standards was set up in 1956 to establish standards for all engg
materials, products & different processes in India.
• As far as steels & cast irons are concerned, each & every ferrous alloy or group of
ferrous alloys are designated particular numbers.
• The INDIAN STANDARD INSTITUTION numbers of some important steels & cast
irons are as follows.
As far as tool steels are concerned, they have been grouped into 7 major headings & each or
sub group has been assigned an alphabetical letter as follows.
Page 21
GROUP SYMBOL & TYPE
WATER HARDENING W
SHOCK-RESISTING S
COLD WORK O-OIL HARDENING
A-MEDIUM ALLOY AIR HARDENING
D-HIGH-CARBON, HIGH-CHROMIUM
HOT WORK H- H1 to H-19-Chromium based
H20 to H39-Tungsten based
H40 to H59-Molybdenum based
HIGH-SPEED T- Tungsten, M-Molybdenum base
MOULD STEELS P-P1 to P19- Low carbon
P-20 to P39-other types
SPECIAL PURPOSE L-Low alloy, F-Carbon tungsten.
CAST IRON
• Cast irons are those alloys of iron & carbon where the carbon content varies b/w 2.1-
6.67%.
• High carbon content tends to make the C I very brittle, but most commercial available
types like 2.5-4% carbon.
• CI are low in ductility, so it cannot be rolled, drawn or worked easily at room
temperature.
• Most of the C I are not malleable at any temperature but for melting temp it will
possible.
• Molten C I is very suitable for complicated shapes.
• C I are brittle & have lower strength properties than steels but are most than them.
TYPES OF CAST IRON

CI are classified according to their microstructure.
1] Gray CI 3] Malleable C I
2] White C I 4] Nodular or S.G. Iron or Ductile Iron
Page 22
1] GRAY CAST IRON:

✓ COMPPOSITION-2.5-4% C
✓ MICROSTRUCTURE-α-ferrite & flake graphites
✓ Properties- high fluidity, very high compressive strength, very effective in damping
vibrations, low cost
✓ Fracture surface-greyish, blackish surface when fractured (because of graphite flakes)
✓ Applications-pressure vessels, cylinder heads, pistons, clutch plates, base structure for
machines & heavy equipment that are exposed to vibrations, valves, fittings, levers.
MALLEABLE CAST IRON

• These are the alloys where almost all the carbon is in the free form in the shape of
irregular particles called temper carbon.
• Composition- 1.8-3.2% C, 0.3-1.8% Silicon & rest iron
• Microstructure- ferrite matrix[white regions] & tempered carbon particles [black
region]
• Properties- highly malleable, very good mach inability, good magnetic properties,
wear resistance
• Applications- connecting rods, transmission gears, flanges, pipe fittings, differential
cases of automotive industry, valves, parts of rail roads & marine works.
Page 23
Spheroidal graphite [SG] iron

• It is also called as nodular or ductile iron because of its ductility.
• In this type of iron carbon in the shape of compact spheroids or nodular.
• SG iron is obtained by adding a small % of magnesium or Cerium to the alloy in the
molten state.
• Composition-3-4% carbon, 1.6-2.8% silicon & rest iron, very low % of phosphorus &
sulphur
• Microstructure-dark graphite nodules surrounded by α-ferrite matrix
• Properties-highly ductile, very good machinabiliity, high corrosion resistance & good
creep properties at elevated temperatures.
• Applications-flywheels, furnace doors, wrenches, lathe chucks, motor frames, pump
bodies.
S.G.IRON PRODUCTION
• It can be produced as-cast is opposed to malleable iron which is produced by heat
treating white cast iron.
• The nodular shaped carbides in SG Iron are obtained by keeping the % of phosphors
& sulphur very low which otherwise would interfere in the formation of spheroids.
• This is achieved by adding magnesium or cesium to the metal just before it is cast.
WHITE CAST IRON

These are alloys which are hypo-eutectic in composition & an exception among C I. This
is because all the carbon present in them are in combined form as cementite [Fe3C] &
Pearlite as against the free carbon [graphite] form present in other C I.
• WCI is also intermediate stage for producing malleable iron.
• Composition- 1.8-3.2% C, 0.3-1.8% Silicon,
• rest iron
• Microstructure- iron carbide [light phase], Pearlite [dark phase], no graphite.
• Properties- very hard brittle, highly wear resistant, no ductility & malleability, not
machinable
• Fracture surface- whitish surface
• Applications- liners of cement mixers, ball mill, certain types of drawing dies, extrusion
nozzles.
Page 24

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Material Science & Metallurgy

The purpose of heat treatment is to achieve the following objectives;

• To improve mechanical properties like tensile strength, impact resistance, ductility in

Stages of heat treatment are

Types of heat treatment processes

Annealing is a rather generalized term. Annealing consists of heating a metal to a specific

Schematic representation of annealing operation

To relieve internal stresses, improve ductility and grain grain refinement

A pearlite + ferrite structure in case of hypo eutectoid steels

Holding or soaking time

Heat treatment cycles of full annealing and isothermal annealing

temperature range around A1 transforms cementite lamellae from pearlite to spheroidal.

Stress relief annealing

Fig Heat hardening process treatment cycle for conventional

Fig Martempering followed by tempering

Heat treatment cycle for austempering

Fig. Pack Carburizing

Fig. Induction Hardening

The variation in the properties of the annealed

Effect of alloying elements on properties of steel

Definition ferrous and non ferrous metals

• It can be classified in several ways.

[i] Low carbon [mild steels],

[ii] Hypo eutectoid steels [ ‹ 0.8% C]

[iii] Hyper-eutectoid steels [› 0.8% C]

i] AISI-American Iron & Steel Institute

1] PLAIN CARBON STEELS

LOW CARBON STEELS

Low-carbon steels: the charactestics of low-carbon steels are:

MEDIUM CARBON STEELS

Microstructure of medium carbon steels

HIGH CARBON STEELS

Microstructure of high carbon steels

ULTRA HIGH CARBON STEEL

❖ It contain approximately 1-2% carbon, & can be tempered to great hardness.

Lists of alloy steels

Types of alloy steels

Principal alloying elements

Characteristics of structural steels

2] TOOL & DIE STEELS

Different types of tool steels:

❑ The carbon content varies between 0.7% & 1%.

High-strength low-alloy steels(>2%)

Medium-alloy nickel-chromium steels(2-10%)

Excellent corrosion resistance [because presence of chromium] & aesthetic [appearance or

A] Austenitic stainless steel

B] Ferrite stainless steel

C] Martensitic stainless steel

D] Precipitation hardening steels

The various types of steels classified under tool steels include:

AISI/SAE Designation Steel

BIS Designation Steels & Cast Iron

GROUP SYMBOL & TYPE

COLD WORK O-OIL HARDENING

A-MEDIUM ALLOY AIR HARDENING

HOT WORK H- H1 to H-19-Chromium based

H20 to H39-Tungsten based

H40 to H59-Molybdenum based

HIGH-SPEED T- Tungsten, M-Molybdenum base

MOULD STEELS P-P1 to P19- Low carbon

P-20 to P39-other types

SPECIAL PURPOSE L-Low alloy, F-Carbon tungsten.