Manufacturing Process I

MEng3091
Raji Dh.
School of Mechanical and Industrial
Engineering
Manufacturing Chair
Dire Dawa University
Dire Dawa, Ethiopia
 CH#1
Introduction to Manufacturing
Processes
Manufacturing: something made from raw materials by
hand or by machinery.
Process: a series of actions that you take in order to achieve
a result.
 As a field of study in the modern context, manufacturing
can be defined two ways, one technological and the other
economical
Manufacturing - Technological
• Application of physical and chemical processes to alter
the geometry, properties, and/or appearance of a starting
material to make parts or products manufacturing also
includes assembly of multiple parts to make products.
Manufacturing – Economic
• Transformation of materials into items
of greater value by one or more
processing and/or assembly Operations.
The key point is that manufacturing adds
value to the material by changing its
shape or properties, or by combining it
with other materials that have been
similarly altered.
 MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
AND PRODUCTS
• Manufacturing Industries Industry consists of
enterprises and organizations that produce or supply
goods and services.
Industries can be classified as:
1. Primary industries - cultivate and exploit natural
resources, e.g., agriculture, mining
2. Secondary industries - take the outputs of primary
industries and convert them into consumer and capital
• Goods, e.g Basic metals, Electronics Wood and
furniture Equipment Fabricated metals
3. Tertiary industries - service sector. e.g, Banking, Hotel,
Education
 Cont.

Manufactured Products
•Final products divide into two major classes:
1. Consumer goods - products purchased
directly by consumers. e.g Cars, clothes, TVs,
tennis rackets
2. Capital goods - those purchased by
companies to produce goods and/or provide
services. E.g. Aircraft, computers,
communication equipment, medical apparatus,
trucks, machine tools, construction equipment
 Materials in Manufacturing
• Metals
– Ferrous – steels and cast iron (¾ of metals used)
– Nonferrous – aluminum, titanium, nickel…
• Ceramics – A compounds of metallic (semi-metallic) and
nonmetallic
• Polymers
– Thermoplastic
– Thermosetting
– Elastomers
• Composites
– Matrix & Second phases
• Thermomechanical Behavior
– Elastic, plastic, fatigue, thermal
– Electrical, Magnetic, Optical, Chemical
 MANUFACTURING PROCESS
• is a designed procedure that results in physical and/or
PROCESSES
chemical changes to a starting work material with the
intention of increasing the value of that material.
• usually carried out as a unit operation
Manufacturing processes/operations can be divided into
two basic types:
1. Processing operations - transform a work material
from one state of completion to a more advanced state
• Operations that change the geometry, properties, or
appearance of the starting material
2. Assembly operations - join two or more components to
create a new entity
 Cont.
A classification of manufacturing processes is presented here in this Figure:
 SELECTION OF MANUFACTURING
PROCESS
• Quantity of the product
• Cost for tooling, manufacturing machines and equipment
• Time required for processing
• Level of skilled labor required
• Process supervision
• Energy consumption
• Availability of material and cost of material
• Capabilities required to processes material
• Product dimensions and size
• Surface finish required
• Design tolerances
• Waste produced by the process
• Maintenance costs
• Other costs
SYSPRODUCTION SYSTEMSTEMS
• Production systems consist of people, equipment, and
procedures designed for the combination of materials
and processes that constitute a firm’s manufacturing
operations.
Production systems can be divided into two categories:
1. Production facilities refer to the physical equipment
and the arrangement of equipment in the factory.
Types of facilities are required for each of the three
ranges of annual production quantities.
 Low-quantity Production (1~100 units/year) – job
shop, prototyping
 Medium-quantity Production (100~10,000 units/year) –
Batch production and cellular manufacturing
 High-quantity Production (10,000~millions of
units/year) – mass production
 Cont.
2. Manufacturing support systems are the procedures
used by the company to manage production and solve the
technical and logistics problems encountered in ordering
materials, moving work through the factory, and ensuring
that products meet quality standards.
• often carried out in the firm by people organized into
departments such as the following:
1. Manufacturing Engineering – planning mfg processes
2. Production planning and control – logistics problems in
manufacturing, ordering materials and purchased parts,
scheduling production
3. Quality control- Producing high-quality products
Cont.
 CH#2
Foundry Technology
• A foundry is a factory equipped for making molds,
melting and handling metal in molten form, performing
the casting process, and cleaning the finished casting.
• The workers who perform the casting operations in
these factories are called foundry men.
What is casting?
• Casting is a process in which molten metal flows by
gravity or other force into a mold where it solidifies in
the shape of the mold cavity
• It is one of the oldest shaping processes
• Casting includes both the casting of ingots and the
casting of shapes.
 Cont.
• Ingot usually associated with the primary metals industries;
it describes a large casting that is simple in shape and
intended for subsequent reshaping by processes such as
rolling or forging
• Shape casting involves the production of more complex
geometries that are much closer to the final desired shape of
the part or product.
 To accomplish a casting operation, the metal is first heated
to a temperature high enough to completely transform it into
a liquid state. It is then poured, or otherwise directed, into
the cavity of the mold. As soon as the molten metal is in the
mold, it begins to cool. When the temperature drops
sufficiently (e.g., to the freezing point for a pure metal),
solidification begins. Once the casting has cooled
sufficiently, it is removed from the mold.
 Cont.
Advantages of Metal Casting:
1- Casting can be used to create complex geometrical parts, including
both external and internal shapes;
2- Some casting operations are capable of producing parts to net
shape;
3- Casting can be used to produce very large parts;
4- Casting process can be performed on any metal that can be heated
to the liquid;
5- Some casting methods are big highly suited for mass production.
Disadvantages:
1- limitation on mechanical properties
2- Porosity
3- Poor dimensional accuracy and surface finish.
4- Safety hazards on humans and environmental problems.
 Pattern, Molding and Core making
• A pattern is a form made of wood, metal, plastic,
or composite materials around which a molding
material (usually prepared by sand) is formed to
shape the casting cavity of a mold.
• It is a replica of an object to be casted;
• It is like the original object with some allowances;
• The allowances are given to compensate for metal
shrinkage, provide sufficient metal for machining the
surface and facilitate moulding;
• The pattern dimension is different from the final
dimension of the cast;
 Function of Patterns
• Patterns serve a variety of functions. The main purpose of
the pattern is to create a mould cavity, however to produce a
casting successfully and render it suitable for further
processing the pattern may be required to perform other
functions besides producing a mould cavity. These are
briefly considered as follow:
i. Molding the gating system;
ii. Establishing the parting line;
iii. To accommodate the characteristics of metal cast
iv. To provide accurate dimension;
v. To provide a means to support cores;
vi. Patterns properly made and having finished and smooth
surfaces reduce casting defects;
vii. Properly constructed patterns minimize over all cost of the
casting.
17
 Pattern Materials
Pattern may be constructed from the following materials:-
Wood :- it is the most common material for making patterns for
sand casting
Advantages:-
Inexpensive;
Easily available in large quantities;
Easy to machine and shape to different configuration and
forms;
Easy to join to get complex & large pattern;
Light in weight ;
Easy to obtain good surface finish.
Limitations :-
Susceptible to shrinkage and swelling; Poor wear resistance;
Poor abrasion resistance (easily abraded by sand action);
Absorb moisture, consequently change shape and size;
Weak compared to metal pattern.
 Metallic patterns
• These are advantageously used when a large number of castings are
desired.
• Commonly a metal pattern is itself cast from a wooden pattern
called “master pattern” when metal patterns are to be cast from
master patterns, double pattern shrinkage must be allowed.
Advantages of metallic patterns:
i. They do not change their shape
ii. They are free from warping in storage;
iii. They are very much suited to machine molding because of their
accuracy, durability and strength;
iv. They can withstand abrasion and rough handling;
v. Sometimes, they may not require to be cast from wooden pattern
but can be machined to desired shape;
vi. Easy to obtain smooth surface finish;
vii. They possess excellent resistance to swelling.
 Cont.
Limitations of metallic pattern:
i. Expensive than wood and hence not generally suited for
small production;
ii. Less easy to shape and work;
iii. Tendency to get rusted viz., cast iron.
iv. Excessive weight;
v. Cannot be repaired easily.
Plaster pattern
Patterns which are made up of plaster of Paris or gypsum
cement (mostly for shell molding)
Advantages:-
i. Intricate shapes can be cast without any difficulty;
ii. It has high compressive strength. 20
 Wax patterns
Wax is traditionally used as a pattern material in
investment castings;
 Synthetic waxes (Petroleum products) are used as a
pattern material;
Wax patterns provide:
i. a high degree of surface finish;
ii. dimensional accuracy casting;
iii. No chance of mold cavity getting damaged while
removing the pattern, b/c after molded the wax
pattern is not taken out of the mold like other
patterns, rather the mold is inverted and heated
thus the molten wax is evaporated.

21
 Plastics and rubbers
 Both thermosetting and thermo plastic materials are used
as a pattern materials;
 Plastic patters:
i. Have castable nature;
ii. High strength to weight ratio;
iii. Have good adhesive qualities;
iv. Have a very smooth surface;
v. Have good resistance to chemical attack;
vi. Have better impact strength than wood;
vii. Have good resistance to wear and abrasion;
viii.Low cost of working;
ix. Do not absorb moisture;
x. Are strong and dimensionally stable.
22
Types of patterns and factors to select pattern
 Various types of patterns are in use in foundry shops
 The type of pattern selected for a particular casting will depend on:-
i. The shape and size of the casting;
ii. Number of castings required;
iii. Methods of molding or core making employed;
iv. The casting design;
v. Difficulty of the molding operation.
Commonly known types of patterns:-
1. Single piece or solid pattern;
2. Split piece Pattern;
3. Gated pattern;
4. Match plate pattern;
5. Loose piece pattern;
6. Skeleton pattern;
7. Sweep pattern;
8. Segmental pattern;
9. Shell pattern;
10. Cope and drag pattern , and others.
23
 Some of the commonly used patterns

a. solid pattern, (b) split pattern, (c) match-plate pattern, and (d) cope-and-drag pattern

Single Piece Pattern:

made with out joints, parting or any loose pieces in its construction;
constructed from wood but may be made of metal, plasters, wax or
any other
the most inexpensive of all types of patterns;
used only in cases where the job is very simple
A gating system is made in the mold by cutting sand with the help of
sand tools;
It is also used for application in very small-scale production or in
prototype development. 24
 Cont.
 Split or Two Piece Pattern
 most widely for intricate castings;
 It is split along the parting surface, One half of the pattern is molded
in drag and the other half in cope;
 must be aligned properly by making use of the dowel pins, which are
fitted, to the cope half of the pattern; these dowel pins match with the
precisely made holes in the drag half of the pattern.
 Match Plate Pattern
 the cope and drag patterns along with the gating and risering are
mounted on a single matching plate on either side.
 On one side of the match plate the cope flask is prepared and on the
other, the drag flask.
 After moulding when the match plate is removed, a complete mould
with gating is obtained by joining the cope and the drag together.
 Cont.
 The complete pattern with match plate is entirely made of metal,
usually aluminium for its light weight and machinability.
 The pattern and gating are either screwed to the match plate in the
case of a flat parting plane or made integral in case of an irregular
parting plane.

 Cope and Drag Pattern

 These are similar to split patterns.
 In addition to splitting the pattern, the cope and drag halves of the
pattern along with the gating and risering systems are attached
separately.
 The cope and drag moulds may be produced using these patterns
separately
 used for castings which are heavy and inconvenient for handling
26
 Pattern Allowances
• Pattern allowance is a vital feature as it affects the dimensional
characteristics of the casting.
• Thus, when the pattern is produced, certain allowances must be given
on the sizes specified in the finished component drawing
• Helps to reduce machining costs and avoid rejections.
The allowances usually considered on patterns and core boxes are as
follows:
1. Shrinkage or contraction allowance
2. Draft or taper allowance
3. Machining or finish allowance
4. Distortion or camber allowance
5. Rapping or shaking allowance
Shrinkage allowance is the correction factor built into the pattern to
compensate for the contraction of the metal casting as it solidifies and
cools to room temperature.
 Cont.
The metal shrinkage is of two types:
i. Liquid Shrinkage: It refers to the reduction in volume when the metal
changes from liquid state to solid state at the solidus temperature.
 To account for this shrinkage; risers, which feed the liquid metal to
the casting, are provided in the mold.
ii. Solid Shrinkage: It refers to the reduction in volume caused when
metal loses temperature in solid state.
 To account for this, shrinkage allowance is provided on the patterns.
Draft or taper allowance
• the taper provided by the pattern maker on all vertical surfaces of the
pattern so that it can be removed from the sand without tearing away
the sides of the sand mold. Inner details of the pattern require higher
draft than outer surfaces.
 Cont.
• The amount of draft depends upon:
 the length of the vertical side of the pattern to be extracted;
 the intricacy of the pattern;
 the method of molding; and
 pattern material.
Machining or Finish Allowance
 is the amount the dimensions on a casting are made over size to
provide stock for machining. Therefore the allowance were added in
the pattern dimension.
Distortion Allowance
• A metal when it has just solidified, is very weak and therefore is
likely to be distortion prone. Sometimes castings get distorted, during
solidification, due to their typical shape like U,V,T or L.
• The distortion in casting may occur due to internal stresses.
 Cont.
• prevented by making the legs of the U, V, T, or L shaped pattern
converge slightly (inward)
• Another way to take care of this phenomenon is to make extra
material provision for reducing the distortion.
Measure taken to prevent the distortion in casting includes:
 Modification of casting design;
 Providing sufficient machining allowance to cover the distortion
 Providing suitable allowance on the pattern called camber or
distortion allowance( inverse reflection).
Shake Allowance
• There is no sure way of quantifying this allowance, since it is highly
dependent on the foundry personnel practice involved. It is a
negative allowance
• One way of reducing this allowance is to increase the draft which
can be removed during the subsequent machining.
 Core boxes and Core prints
Core Boxes
• Cores defined as that as that portion of the mould, which forms the
hollow interior of the casting or hole through the castings.
• Core can also defined as a body of dry sand generally prepared in a
core box, baked in an oven and used to form a cavity of desired
shape.
• Cores can be prepared from sand, metal, plaster or ceramic.
• Core boxes are the reverse patterns or reverse molds used to make
the cores that become part of the final mold assembly.
• The term pattern equipment refers to the pattern itself and to all of
the core boxes needed to produce the cores that will be part of the
final mold assembly.
• Because a given casting may have a complex internal shape or many
internal passageways, the cost of producing core boxes may exceed
that of the associated mold pattern. 31
 Cont.
Core Prints
• When the production of a cast shape requires cores, provision
must be made on the pattern for core prints.
• Core prints are portions of the pattern that locate and anchor
the core in the proper position in the mold.
• The core print is added to the pattern (and removed from the
core box), but does not appear on the final casting, because it
is filled with the core itself.

32
 Cont.
•Half core box- for cores prepared in identical halves;
•Dump or slab core box-if the core does not require any support
but past by itself;
•Strickle type core box- for irregular surface core that can not be
rammed by other methods;
•Right and left-hand side core boxes-when core is required in two
parts that are not identical (two different core boxes of half core
type have to be provided);
•Loose piece core box-In case where two parts of the core are not
identical they can be prepared from a single core box with the help
of loose pieces.
 Pattern colors
 Patterns are imparted certain colors and shades in order to:
i. Identify the main body of the pattern and its different parts;
ii. Indicate the type of metal to be cast;
iii. Identify core prints, loose pieces, etc.
iv. Identify or visualize surface to be machined etc.
American color scheme is given below, the American color coding
system is the most widely used color coding system of patterns
i. Cast surface to be left un machined-Black
ii. Cast surface to be machined-Red
iii. Loose piece and seating-Red strips on yellow base
iv. Core print seats-Yellow
v. Stop-offs or supports-Black strip on a yellow back ground
vi. Parting surfaces-Clear or no color
vii. Core prints for machined openings-Yellow stripe on 34back
 Pattern Tools and Equipment
Pattern Making Tools:
 Rule, Caliper rule, Shrink scale, Flexible rule, Making gauge,
Try square, T-bevel, Trammels, Steel square, Combination
square, Dividers, and Caliper, Coping saw, panel saw, compass
saw, back saw, miter saw, pattern maker’s saw, Block plane,
bench plane, router plane, circular plane, core box plane, spoke
shave, Brace, hand drill, auger bit, twist drill, countersink,
doweling jig, bit gauge.
 Clamping tools:
 Hand screw, pattern maker’s vice, C-clamp, bar clamp, pinch
dog.
 The machines used for pattern making are:
 Circular saw, Band saw, Jig or Scroll saw, Jointer, Wood turning
lathe, abrasive-disc machine, Abrasive-belt machine, Drills
press, Grinder, Wooden planer, Wood shaper or wood molder,
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Mortise, etc
 Molding
 A mold is a form or shape with cavity in which melted metal is
poured to obtain a solidified castings of similar copy of the shape
of the pattern;
 Molding is the operation necessary to prepare a mold for receiving
the molten metal.
 It consists of ramming sand around the pattern placed in a support,
or flask, removing the pattern, setting cores in place, cutting the
feeding system to direct the metal if this feeding system is not a
part of the pattern, removing the pattern, and closing the mold;
Type of mold
1. Expendable mold processes
In this type the mold is destroyed to remove the casting therefore a
new mold is required for every casting
*Advantage: more complex shapes possible to cast.
*Disadvantage: production rates often limited by time to make mold
rather than casting itself.
 Cont.
2. Permanent mold processes
 This casting processes use permanent mold which can be used to
produce many castings.
*Advantage: higher production rates
*Disadvantage: geometries limited by need to open mold
Molding Material
Mold material is chosen on the basis of three criteria:-
 Material cost;
The number of pours required;
Casting alloys.
• Can be metallic or non-metallic. But the molding sand is the most
common utilized non-metallic molding material because of its certain
inherent properties namely refractoriness, chemical and thermal
stability at higher temperature, high permeability and workability
along with good strength. Moreover, it is also highly cheap and easily
available.
 Cont.
 Different types of refractory sands used for molding are:
 (i) Silica sand (ii) Magnesite (iii) Zircon (iv) Silimanite (v) Olivine
(vi) Graphite/carbon
Silica sand is mostly used in foundries
 Depending upon the purity and other constituents present, sand is
classified into:
(i) Natural sand. (ii) Synthetic sand, (iii) loam sand.
Natural sand:
 directly used for molding and contains 5-20% of clay as binding
 It needs 5-8% water for mixing before making the mold. Are capable
of retaining moisture content for a long time.
 It is less refractory compared to synthetic sand.
 These sands are reconditioned by mixing small amounts of binding
materials like bentonite to improve their properties and are known as
semi-synthetic sand
 Cont.
ii. Synthetic Sands:
 consists of silica sand with or without clay, binder or moisture.
 It is a formulated sand i.e. sand formed by adding different
ingredients. Sand formulations are done to get certain desired
properties not possessed by natural sand.
 These sands have better casting properties like permeability and
refractoriness These properties can be controlled by mixing
different ingredients.
 used for making heavy castings.
iii. Loam Sand:
 contains many ingredients, like fine sand particles, finely ground
refractories, clay, graphite and fiber reinforcements. the clay
content may be of the order of 50% or more.
 When mixed with water, the materials mix to a consistency
resembling mortar and become hard after drying.
 Big molds for casting are made of brick framework lined with
loam sand and dried.
 Constituents of Molding Sand
 The main constituents of molding sand involve silica sand, binder,
moisture content and additives.
Silica sand
 Its in form of granular quarts having enough refractoriness which
can impart strength, stability and permeability to molding and core
sand.
 The chemical composition of silica sand gives an idea of the
impurities like lime, magnesia, alkalis etc. present.
 Impurities lower the fusion point to a considerable extent which is
undesirable.
Moisture
 The amount of moisture content varies between 2 to 8 percent.
This amount is added to the mixture of clay and silica sand for
developing bonds.
 Cont.
 required to fill the pores between the particles of clay without
separating them.
 mainly responsible for developing the strength in the sand.
 decreases permeability with increasing clay and moisture content
Additives
are the materials generally added to the molding and core sand mixture
to develop some special property in the sand. Like, coal dust, dextrin,
pitch and wood flour
Binders
 added to give cohesion to molding sands. provide strength and
enable it to retain its shape as mold cavity.
 The following binders are generally added to foundry sand:
(i) Fireclay, (ii) Illite (iii) Bentonite, (iv) Limonitem, (iv) Kaolinite
 Classification of Moulding sand according to their use:
1: Green sand
 The sand in its natural or moist state is called green sand. It is also
called tempered sand. It is a mixture of sand with 20 to 30 percent
clay, having total amount of water from 6 to 10 percent.
 used for small size casting of ferrous and non-ferrous metals.
2: Dry Sand
 The green sand moulds when baked or dried, have greater strength,
rigidity and thermal stability. Used for large and heavy casting.
3: Loam Sand
 A mixture of 50 percent sand grains and 50 percent clay. It is used
for loam moulds of large grey iron casting.
4: Facing Sand
 Used before pouring the molten metal, on the surface is called
facing sand. It is specially prepared sand from silica sand and clay.
42
 Cont.
5: Backing or Floor Sand
used to back up the facing sand and not used next to the pattern
6: System Sand
 A sand employed in mechanical sand preparation and handling
system is called system sand. This sand has high strength,
permeability and refractoriness.
7: Parting Sand
 A sand employed on the faces of the pattern before the moulding is
called parting sand. The parting sand consists of dried silica sand, sea
sand or burnt sand.
8: Core Sand
 The cores are defined as sand bodies used to form the hollow
portions or cavities of desired shape and size in the casting. Thus the
sand used for making these cores is called core sand. It is sometimes
called oil sand. It is the silica sand mixed with linseed oil or any
other oil as binder.
 Properties of Molding Sand
1). Refractoriness
 ability to withstand high temperatures without breaking down or fusing
thus facilitating to get sound casting. It is a highly important
characteristic of molding sands.
2). Cohesiveness
 It is property sand grain particles interact and attract each other within
the molding sand. Thus, its the binding capability of the molding sand.
3). Permeability
 It is also termed as porosity of the molding sand in order to allow the
escape of any air, gases or moisture present or generated in the mold.
4). Green strength
 The green sand after water has been mixed into it, must have
sufficient strength and toughness to permit making and handling
of the mold. Adhesive- capable of attaching themselves to another
44
body and cohesiveness
 Cont.
5) Dry strength
 This dry sand layer must have sufficient strength to its shape in
order to avoid erosion of mold wall during the flow of molten metal.
7) Adhesiveness
 It is property of molding sand to get stick or adhere with foreign
material such sticking of molding sand with inner wall of molding
box.
8) Collapsibility
 After the molten metal in the mold gets solidified, the sand mold
must be collapsible so that free contraction of the metal occurs and
this would naturally avoid the tearing or cracking of the contracting
metal.
9) Flowability
 Flowability is a measure of the ability of the material to be
compacted to a uniform density.
 Tools, Equipment and Machines for Sand Molding

• Molding board- where the flask is placed and sand is rammed;

• Flasks (drag and cope)- a metallic or wooden box used to support
and ram the mold;
• Rammer- wooden or metallic tapered pieces in one or both sides and
used to ram or compact the sand in the flask;
• Swab - a small container of water that is used to apply water to the
rammed mold in case of maintenance;
• Brushes-used to clean the area of molding and the cast surface after
casting;
• Riddle- mostly metallic sieve used to grade the sands;
• Strickle of bar-metallic or wooden bar used to correct the mold
edges or surfaces after molding;
• Gate cutter- a metallic piece used to cut gating system;
• Trowel (slick)- used to smooth the surface of the mold;
46
 Cont.
• Muller- a device powered electrically and used to mulling or
mixing sand with additives or other agents;
• Sand aerator-used to separate the grains of the sand after Muller;
• Bellows- cleaning device using pressurized air sucked from air;
 In addition lifter screws, mallets, hammers, metallic pipes, round
bars, clamps, tongs of various types, screw drivers, screws nails,
measuring rulers are also used

47
Muller (sand mixer)
 Gating System and Riser
 One of the key elements to make a metal casting of high quality is
the design of a good gating system.
 The main objective of a gating system is to lead clean molten metal
poured from ladle to the casting cavity, ensuring smooth, uniform
and complete filling
Functions:
• To trap contaminants;
• To regulate flow of molten
metal;
• To control turbulence;
• To establish directional
solidification.
 Cont.
 For proper functioning of the gating system, the following
factors need to be controlled:
• Type of pouring equipment such as ladles, pouring basin etc;
• Temperature/fluidity of molten metal;
• Rate of liquid metal pouring;
• Type and size of sprue;
• Type and size of runner;
• Size , number and location of gates connecting runner and casting;
• Position of mold during pouring and solidification.
The members of the gating system
• Pouring basin:circular or rectangular pocket that accepts the molten
metal from the ladle and reduces turbulence and vortexing at the
sprue entrance
• Helps separating dross and slag before entering to the sprue
 Cont.
Sprue:
• Straight or nearly straight sprue may be used in all pressurized
systems;
• Chocked at the bottom (or sprue basin) of the sprue must be used in
a non-pressurized gating systems.
Runner.
• system is fed by the well and is the path that the gates are fed from;
• promote smooth laminar flow by a balanced volumetric flow, and
avoiding sharp or abrupt changes in direction
• straight runner is the best choice
• Runner Extension" is a "Dead-End, acts as a cushion to absorb the
forward momentum or kinetic energy of the fluid flow.
Sprue runner junction
• the sprue bottom should extend to the bottom of the runner.
 Cont.
Gates:
• accommodate a directional change in the fluid flow and deliver the
metal to the Casting cavity.
• Gates should be thin and correspondingly wide, and should be easy
to removed.
Runner-gate Junction
• A gate must never be placed in straight continuation of the runner;
Gate-Casting junction
• The gates need to join the thinnest sections of the casting as much as
layout limitations permit
 Types of gating system
Classification of gating system based on parting plane orientation

 Horizontal gating systems: are suitable for flat castings filled under
gravity. widely used in sand casting & gravity diecasting of ferrous
metals
 Vertical gating systems: are suitable for tall castings. Employed in
high-pressure sand mold, shell mold and diecasting processes, where
the parting plane is vertical;
 Cont.
Classification of gating system based on position of ingates

 Top gating systems: in which hot molten metal enters at the top of the casting,
promote directional solidification from bottom to top of the casting. Suitable only
for flat castings
 Bottom gating systems: have the opposite characteristics: the metal enters at the
bottom of the casting and gradually fills up the mold with minimal disturbances. It
is recommended for tall castings,
 Parting gating system: Molten metals enters through the sprue and reaches the
parting surface where the sprue is connected to the gate in a direction horizontal to
the casting
 Cont.
According to the hydrodynamics of flow of metal Gating system
Pressurized (Closed): are characterized by gradually decreeing cross
sectional areas of the sprue, slag traps and runners;
• The total cross sectional area decreases towards the mold cavity;
SA > RA >GA
• Flow of liquid (volume) is almost equal from all gates,
• Because of the restrictions the metal flows at high velocity leading to
more turbulence and chances of mold erosion; which can lead to
splashing and oxidation of the molten metal, capture of air, and
washout of the mould walls
• Better separation of slag
Open or non-pressurized: characterized by gradually increasing cross
sectional areas of the sprue, slag traps and runners,sprue: runner :gate:
SA < RA < GA
 Cont.
• The total cross sectional area increases towards the mold cavity;
• Restriction only at the bottom of sprue;
• Flow of liquid (volume) is different from all gates;
• Aspiration in the gating system as the system never runs full;
• Less turbulence.
Gating ratio
 given by As:Ar:Ag where As , Ar , Ag are the cross-sectional areas of
sprue exit, runner(s) and ingate(s);
 A converging diverging system, where the ingate area is more than
the sprue exit area, is to be preferred
 A non-pressurized gating system, wherein the area of runners and
gates is larger than that of the sprue i.e.. 1:2:2 or 1:4:4, offers a rapid
filling, the low velocity metal stream resulting in materially reduced
mold erosion.
 General Principles of Hydraulic Flow
The flow of molten metal after being poured is a transient phenomenon
which is accompanied by turbulence, splashing, separation of streams
near change of sections, branching off and rejoining of streams,
changes in melt properties such as density, viscosity and surface tension
and the onset of solidification.
• To obtain understanding of the fundamentals of metal flow in gating
systems, two basic fluid flow equations are of interest. The first of
them is the “Law of continuity” and the second one is “Bernoulli’s
Theorem”.
Law of Continuity
• The law of continuity states that the flow rate must be the same at a
given time in all portions of a fluid system. It may be written as:-
Q = A1V1 =A2V2 ; Where: Q = metal flow rate in cu.ft/sec, -A1
& A2 = cross-sectional area of flow channel at two different points
1 & 2 in sq.ft., V1 & V2 = metal velocity at points 1 & 2 in ft/sec.
 Cont.
 The law of continuity can be used to predict quantitatively the
effect of variation in channel size on the metal velocities and flow
rates in a gating system.
Bernoulli’s theorem states that the energy of a liquid at a given point
can be separated into three parts: energy of velocity (v2/2g), energy
of pressure (P1/ρ) and energy of position, (h). In the ideal case (
with no energy loss ), when liquid moves from point 1 to point 2, it
neither gains nor looses energy. Thus, setting the energies equal for
two positions, yields the equation as below:-
• (V21÷2g) + (P1÷ρ) + h1 = (V22÷2g) + (P2÷ρ) + h2
where V1 & V2 ~ metal velocity at two different points 1 & 2, in ft/sec.
g ~ acceleration due to gravity.,P1& P2 ~ static pressure in the liquid
at points 1 & 2 in lb/sq,in., h1 & h2 ~ height of liquid at points 1 &
2 in ft. ρ ~ density of liquid in lb/ cu.ft.
 Cont.

• assume that the system remains at atmospheric pressure

throughout, then the equation can be reduced to
• (V21÷2g) + h1 = (V22÷2g) + h2
• If point 2 is used as the reference plane, then the head at that
point is zero (h2 =0) and its initial velocity at the top is zero (v1
= 0).
h1 = V22÷2g)
• Then flow velocity:
V22=2g h1 )
 Design of gating system
• The gating system can be designed to fill a given casting in a
predetermined time, by keeping a constant level of liquid metal in
the pouring basin during pouring, to achieve a controlled rate of flow
through the choke. Then next step is to determine the total ingate
area, from which the size of the individual gate, runner and sprue are
derived, depending upon the gating ratio being used.
Pouring Time
• For determination of pouring time, the following empirical formula
can be used:- V
TMF 
Q
Where: T mold filling time, s (sec);V=volume of mold cavity, cm
MF , 3

(in ); and Q= volume flow rate

3

Choke Area
- The choke is the smallest cross-section in the gating system that
controls the flow rate of molten metal.
 Cont.
Choke area (Ac)

Where: Ac=choke area, mm2; W= casting mass including gating

elements, kg ;ρ= mass density of molten metal, kg/mm3; g=
acceleration due to gravity, mm/s2=980mm/s2 ;
C= efficiency factor which is a function of gating system use=0.9 for
single runner; H=effective sprue height
The effective sprue heads can be calculated using the following
relations:

Where: c= Total height of

mould cavity; h= height of
sprue; P= height of mould
cavity in cope.
 Cont.
Design of Sprue
• As the liquid metal passes down the sprue it
loses its pressure head but gains velocity.
• To reduce turbulence and promote Laminar
Flow, from the Pouring Basin, the flow begins
a near vertical incline that is acted upon by
gravity and with an accelerative gravity force
Where: A1= cross-sectional area of the sprue at the top;
A2= cross-sectional area of sprue at the bottom;
h1 &h2 are the height differences at point 1 and 2.
 Cont.
SOLIDIFICATION TIME
• is the time required for the casting to solidify after pouring.
This time is dependent on the size and shape of the casting by
an empirical relationship known as Chvorinov’s rule

𝑛
𝑉
𝑇𝑇𝑆 = 𝐶𝑚
𝐴

• TTS =Total solidification time, min;V=volumeof the casting,

cm3 (in3);A=surface area of the casting, cm2 (in2); n is an
exponent usually taken to have a value =2; and Cm is the mold
constant. Given that n =2, the units of Cm are min/cm2
(min/in2),
 Risers
• reservoirs of molten metal that are used to feed the casting during
solidification
• designed to solidify last and to draw the shrinkage voids out of the casting
• serve as exits for gases and dross entrapped in the metal and as
pressure heads to feed thin sections.
• Open and Closed (according to form of construction
• Most commonly used riser is open one ,which is used for small,
medium and large type castings.
Riser design
Risering is a process designed to prevent shrinkage voids that occur
during solidification contractions.
Criteria for Riser design:
• Riser must remain molten until casting is completely solidified;
• Riser should have enough liquid metal to feed casting;
• Riser should be kept at proper distance from the casting;
 Cont.
Chvorinov’s rule can be expressed in inverse form as the following:
Ariser Apart
 𝟐𝝅𝑫𝟐 𝝅𝑫𝟐 𝒉
Vriser V part 𝑨 = 𝝅𝑫𝒉 + , 𝑽=
𝟒 𝟒

Or, assuming that a cylindrical riser is used,

r 2  2rh Apart

r h
2
V part
Where r is the radius of the riser and h is the riser height; simplifying the above
Equation gives
r  2h Apart

rh V par
or
1 2 Apart
 
h r V part

 The height obtained using the Equations above is usually multiplied with a factor
of safety of about 1.2 on parts that have cylindrical bosses, the radius of the riser
selected is slightly less than that of the boss to ease the removal of the riser from
the part after solidification.
 Melting, Casting, and the solidification process
• melting is the process of producing a liquid metal of the required
composition at the required rate, and with required amount of
superheat while incurring the minimal cost.
• most important foundry practices, as it decides the quality of the
casting.
• There are number of methods available for melting foundry alloys
• A furnace is an equipment used to melt metals, glasses, plastics,
and other materials for casting or to heat materials to change their
shape (e.g. rolling, forging) or properties (heat treatment).
The choice of the furnace depends on several factors, primary among
them are:
 the compositional range of the material to be melted,
 the fuel or energy used to melt the charge,
 the degree of refining and control over the process and
 type and size of the melting unit.
 Cont.
 All furnaces have the following components:
i. Refractory chamber: constructed of insulating materials to
retain heat at high operating temperatures.
ii. Hearth: to support or carry the steel, which consists of
refractory materials supported by a steel structure, part of which
is water-cooled.
iii. Burners: that use liquid or gaseous fuels to raise and maintain
the temperature in the chamber. Coal or electricity can be used
in reheating furnaces.
iv. Chimney: to remove combustion exhaust gases from the
chamber
v. Charging and discharging doors: through which the chamber
is loaded and unloaded. Loading and unloading equipment
include roller tables, conveyors, charging machines and furnace
pushers.
 Common Types of Metal Melting Furnaces
Furnaces are broadly classified into two types based on the heat
generation method.
• They are combustion furnaces that use fuels, and electric furnaces
that use electricity.
• several types of furnaces are used among them:
Cupola Furnaces
• oldest type of furnaces used in foundries.
• lined with refractories, or hard, heat resistant substances such as fire
clay, bricks or blocks.
• usually attached to emissions control systems to capture air
emissions.
• tall and roughly cylindrical and are most often used for melting cast
iron and ferro alloys.
• Alternating layers of metal and ferro alloys, coke, and limestone are
fed into the furnace from the top.
 Cont.

Fig. Shows Cupola used for melting cast iron.

 Cont.
Electric Arc Furnaces
• are often used in large steel foundries and steel mills.
• lined with refractories which slowly decompose and are removed
with slag.
• usually employ air emissions equipment to capture most air
pollution.
• consists of a refractory-lined vessel, usually water-cooled in larger
sizes, covered with a retractable roof, and through which one or
more graphite electrodes enter the furnace.
• A typical alternating current furnace has three electrodes
• The electrodes are automatically raised and lowered by a positioning
system, which may use either electric winch hoists or hydraulic
cylinders.
• The arc forms between the charged material and the electrode, the
charge is heated both by current passing through the charge and by
the radiant energy evolved by the arc
 Cont.
 The melting procedure for the electric are furnace comprises the
following stages:
1) Charging
2) Melting
3) Oxidization (decarburization), with an increase in temperature
4) Tapping
Types of Electric Arc furnace
 direct arc and indirect arc

Fig. Direct arc furnace Fig. Indirect arc furnace

 Cont.
• Direct: These electrodes protrude vertically
through the roof and an electric current passes
directly through them and into the metal bath.
• contains three carbon electrodes operating on a
high tension three-phase power supply.
• In direct: Melting is effected by the arcing between two
horizontally opposed carbon electrodes. Heating is via
radiation from the arc to the charge.
• single-phase power supply and hence the size is usually
limited to relatively small units.
 Cont.
Induction Furnace
• generate heat by passing an electric current through a coil either
around or below the hearth.
• Induction furnaces produce their heat cleanly, without combustion.
• Alternating electric current from an induction power unit flows into a
furnace and through a coil made of hollow copper tubing.
• This creates an electromagnetic field that passes through the
refractory material and couples with conductive metal charge inside
the furnace.
• As the electric current attempts to pass through the metal, it meets
resistance, which produces heat to melt the metal.
• This induces electric current to flow inside the metal charge itself,
producing heat that rapidly causes the metal to melt.
 Cont.

Fig: Cross-section of Coreless Induction Furnace

 Cont.
Crucible Furnace
 A crucible which is made of clay and graphite.
 The metal is placed in a crucible and Then energy is applied
indirectly to the metal by heating the crucible by coke, oil or gas.
The heating of crucible is done by coke, oil or gas.
 used for small melting applications. Its capacity may range from 30
to 150 kg.
 The types of crucible furnace are:
1) Pit furnace is placed below the floor level, it is fired with coke.
2) Coke fired stationary furnace, placed above the floor level. Coke is
used as fuel.
3) Oil fired furnace, etc
 Pouring the molten metal
• Ladles are used to transfer molten metal from a holding furnace to
the pouring station (molding area). It needs to be:
 Strong enough to contain a heavy load of metal;
 Heat-resistant like a furnace.
 Heat-insulated as much as can be managed, to avoid losing heat
and overheating its surroundings;
Two common types of ladles: (a) crane ladle, and (b) two men ladle.
 Cont.
 The organization of pouring might be regarded as the crucial step in
founding, since it is possible to nullify by a single error the
accumulated results of all the earlier work.
 Pouring temperature control is required;
 For heavy works crane supported (lip pouring, teapot, or, bottom
pouring) ladle is required and should be pre heated to avoid
moisture and contaminations of metal with water or other
contaminants;
 For small castings crucible tongs and shanks of various size and
shapes are required;
 Care should be taken not spill hot metal to body of the operator-
safety clothing is essential;
 Solidification

• The majority of metals and alloys are melted and then

allowed to solidify as a casting
Solidification is a phase transformation process in
which liquid is transformed to solid when superheat
and latent heat are removed.
• The transition from a highly disordered liquid to an ordered
solid is accompanied by a lowering in the energy state of
the metal and the release of thermal energy (latent heat of
solidification), forming the arrest on the cooling curve.
• The properties of the casting significantly depends on the
solidification time and cooing rate.
 Solidification Process
• There are two general stages of phase transformation (crystallization)
process:
 Nucleation; and
 Growth of Nuclei (crystal growth).
 Solidification = nucleation + growth of nuclei
 Nucleation:
• Nucleation is the appearance at points in the liquid of centers upon
which further atoms can be deposited for the growth of solid
crystals;
• Nucleation may occur by either homogeneous or heterogeneous
mechanism, depending on the value of undercooling of the liquid
phase (cooling below the equilibrium freezing point);
• Under cooling value determines quantity of nuclei, forming in the
crystallizing alloy. When a liquid comes into a contact with cold and
massive mold wall (chill zone), it cools fast below the freezing point,
resulting in formation of a large quantity of stable nuclei crystals;78
 Cont.
Schematic Representation of Solidification

(a)Formation of stable (b) Growth of (c) Grain structure

nuclei crystals
Solidification = nucleation + growth of nuclei 79
 Cont.
Growth of Nuclei (crystal growth)
• Growth process during nucleation determine final crystallographic
structure of the solid;
• The mode of growth, depends upon thermal conditions in the
solidification zone and the constitution of the alloy;
• When a large number of stable nuclei are present in chill zone of
mold, fine equiaxed grains form.
• Latent crystallization heat, liberating from the crystallizing metal,
decreases the under cooling of the melt and depresses the fast grains
growth.
• At this stage some of small grains, having favorable growth axis,
start to grow in the direction opposite to the direction of heat flow.
As a result columnar crystals (columnar grains) form.
Cont.
Solidification of Pure Metals
Pure metals solidify at constant temperature
Figure: (a) Cooling curve for a pure metal
that has not been well inoculated. Liquid
cools as specific heat is removed
(betweens points A and B). Undercooling
is thus necessary (between points B and
C). As the nucleation begins (point C),
latent heat of fusion is released causing an
increase in the temperature of the liquid.
This process is known as recalescence
(point C to point D). Metal continues to
solidify at a constant temperature (T
melting). At point E, solidification is
complete. Solid casting continues to cool
from the point. (b) Cooling curve for a
well inoculated, but otherwise pure metal.
No undercooling is needed. Recalescence
is not observed. Solidification begins at the
82
melting temperature.
 Cont.
• Undercooling‐The temperature to which the liquid metal must
cool below the equilibrium freezing temperature before
nucleation occurs.
• Recalescence‐The increase in temperature of an under-cooled
liquid metal as a result of the liberation of heat during
nucleation.
• Thermal arrest‐A plateau on the cooling curve during the
solidification of a material caused by the evolution of the
latent heat of fusion during solidification.
• Total solidification time‐The time required for the casting to
solidify completely after the casting has been poured.
• Local solidification time‐The time required for a particular
location in a casting to solidify once nucleation has begun.

83
Solidification of Alloys
• The alloys normally solidify in a temperature range.
• For alloys, the solidification occurs over a
temperature range depending upon the composition.
A typical cooling curve for Ni-Cu system is given in
Figure below

Fig. A typical cooling curve for Ni-Cu system.

 Defects of casting and quality control
• A casting defect is an irregularity in the metal
casting process that is undesired.
• Some defects can be tolerated while others can be
repaired otherwise they must be eliminated.
Common Causes of Casting Defects
 Defects may occur due to one or more of the following
reasons:
• Fault in design of casting pattern
• Fault in design on mold and core
• Fault in design of gating system and riser
• Improper choice of molding materials
• Improper metal composition
• Inadequate melting temperature and rate of pouring
 Types of Casting Defects
Shrinkage defects
• Shrinkage defects occur when feed metal is not available to
compensate for shrinkage as the metal solidifies.
• Riser is a solution
Gas porosity
• is the formation of bubbles within the casting after it has cooled.
This occurs because most liquid materials can hold a large amount
of dissolved gas, but the solid form of the same material cannot, so
the gas forms bubbles within the material as it cools.
• Nitrogen, oxygen and hydrogen are the most encountered gases in
cases of gas porosity.
• To prevent gas porosity the material may be melted in a vacuum, in
an environment of low-solubility gases, such as argon or carbon
dioxide, or under a flux that prevents contact with the air.
86
 Cont.
Pouring metal defects
• Pouring metal defects include misruns, cold shuts, and inclusions.
• A misrun occurs when the liquid metal does not completely fill the
mold cavity, leaving an unfilled portion.
• Cold shuts occur when two fronts of liquid metal do not fuse properly
in the mould cavity, leaving a weak spot.
• Both are caused by either a lack of fluidity in the molten metal or
cross-sections that are too narrow.
• An inclusion is a metal contamination of dross, if solid, or slag, if
liquid. install ceramic filters into the gating system to reduce
inclusion.
Metallurgical defects
• There are two defects in this category:
• hot tears and hot spots.
 Cont.
Hot tears
• also known as hot cracking, are failures in the casting that
occur as the casting cools.
• This happens because the metal is weak when it is hot and the
residual stresses in the material can cause the casting to fail as
it cools.
• Proper mold design prevents this type of defect.
Hot spots
• are areas on the surface of casting that become very hard
because they cooled more quickly than the surrounding
material.
• This type of defect can be avoided by proper cooling practices
or by changing the chemical composition of the metal.
 Inspection and Methods of Inspection of castings
• Control of the quality of the product normally begins with the
control of the quality of the pattern, raw materials for moulding and
melting, moulding process and melting process.
• A complete understanding of melt quality is of a great importance
for the control and prediction of actual casting characteristics.
• A large number of methods have been developed to inspect castings
for defects that may occur during their production.
• Such inspections may be in process inspections or finished product
inspections.
• In process inspections are carried out before a lot of castings have
been completed to detect any flaws that may have occurred in the
process so that corrective measures can be taken to remove the
defect in the remaining units.
• Finished product inspections are carried out after the castings have
all been completed to make sure that the product meets the
requirements specified by the customer.
 Inspection Methods of castings
• There are various test methods that may be employed to evaluate
the soundness of a casting.
• These can be destructive or non-destructive tests.
Mechanical (Destructive) testing
• Destructive methods generally relate to sawing or breaking off of
parts of the castings at places where voids or internal defects are
suspected.
• to determine whether the properties are in compliance with the
specified mechanical requirements.
• the sample may not represent the behavior of the entire lot.
 Common mechanical tests used in metal casting facilities
Hardness testing- machinability and wear resistance.
Tensile testing - ultimate tensile strength, yield strength, elongation
impact testing- toughness
 Cont.
Non-Destructive Testing Methods
• gives the metal casting facility the capability of assuring the quality
of a casting without destroying it.
The most common methods available are:
Visual Inspection:
• Visual inspection is based on the use of the human eye to identify
surface defects, improper filling and molding errors.
Dimensional Inspection:
• To ensure a part meets dimensional requirements, such as tolerances
Dye Penetrant and Fluorescent Powder Testing
• For tiny cracks, pores or other surface that are hard to detect by the
human eye,
• a colored dye solution is applied to the surface of the casting. which
is suspended in penetrating oil, will find its way into the surface
defects.
 Cont.
Magnetic Particle Inspection
• sensitive to defects, particularly shallow (0.003 in.) surface cracks
and other lineal indications.
• Cracks and defects have magnetic properties different than those of
the surrounding material, so their presence will interrupt the
magnetic field, causing distortion. Small magnetic particles show the
path of the flux line that spreads out in order to detour around the
distortion, thereby indicating the shape and position of the crack or
void.
• Used for basically any ferrous alloy except austenitic material
Ultrasonic Testing
• Internal defects, detected by sound waves.
• uses high frequency acoustic energy that is transmitted into a casting.
• requires a high knowledge and experience for an accurate
interpretation of the results,
 Cont.
Radiographic Inspection
• used to detect internal defects
• In this method, a casting is exposed to radiation from an x-ray tube.
The casting absorbs part of the radiation, and the remaining portion
of the radiation exposes the radiographic film
• can be performed without film. Instead, the x-ray image is viewed on
a video screen.
• is the best non-destructive method for detecting internal defects, such
as shrinkage and inclusions.
Eddy Current Inspection
• The eddy current may react on the coil to produce substantial
changes in its reactivity and resistance, and that reaction is used to
pinpoint small cracks or defects.
• it requires a vast amount of knowledge and experience to properly
interpret the results
 Design considerations in casting

Important guidelines and considerations for casting:

• Geometric simplicity
• Corners
• Section thicknesses
• Draft
• Use of cores
• Dimensional tolerances
• Surface finish.
• Machining allowances
End of Chapter
Thanks