METROLOGY AND MEASUREMENT

ME-214

METROLOGY

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0.070 mm = 70 µm (microns)

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Surface Roughness

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 Introduction
Metrology, means the pure science of measurement/precision
measurement. But of engineering purpose, it is restricted to
measurements of length and angles and other quantities which
are expressed in linear or angular terms.

• Metrology is mainly concerned with:

1. Establishing the units of measurement,
reproducing these units in the form of standards
and ensuring the uniformity of measurement.
2. Developing method of measurement.
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3. Analyzing the accuracy of measurement.
 Types of metrology
• Legal metrology: This treats units of measurements, method
of measurements and the measuring instruments, in relation
to the technical and legal requirement .
1. Testing, verification, standardization of measuring instruments.
2. Testing of prototypes/ models of measuring instruments.
3. Examination of measuring instruments to verify its conformity to the
statutory requirements.
• Dynamic metrology: To measure small variation of
continuous nature. Dynamic measurements are performed in
many industrial areas, such as automotive, aeronautical,
electrical, thermal, optical and flow.
• Deterministic metrology: It is a new philosophy in which part
measurement is replaced by process measurement. It is used
in high precision machinery and control systems to achieve
very high accuracy.
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 Objectives of metrology

• Complete evaluation of newly developed products.

• Minimizing the cost of inspection by effective and efficient use of
available facilities.
• Reducing the cost of rejects and rework through the use of statistical
quality control techniques.
• To standardize the measuring method.
• To maintain the accuracy of measurement.
• To prepare design for all the gauges.

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 Standards of Measurements

• In order to make measurements a meaningful exercise, some sort of

comparison with a known quantity is very essential.
• It is necessary to define a unit value of any physical quantity under
consideration such that it will be accepted internationally.
• It is not sufficient to only define these unit values of physical quantities;
these should also be measureable.
• A standard is defined as the fundamental value of any known physical
quantity, as established by national and international organizations of
authority, which can be reproduced.

 Standards play a vital role for manufacturers across the globe in achieving
consistency, accuracy, precision and repeatability in measurements. 9
 Standards of measurements cont.

These days two standard systems of linear measurement, English (yard)

and Metric (Metre/Meter) are in general use throughout the world.
• The metric system was originated in France and now being used by
many countries in the world.
• The British system of linear measurement is based on one arbitrarily
unit known as Yard (exactly 0.9144 meters).

For linear measurements the various standards known are:

1. Line standard
2. End standard Metre (Commonwealth spelling )
Meter (USA spelling)
3. Wave length standard 10
 Yard
Line standards
• The imperial standard yard is a bronze bar 1 sq. inch in cross-section
and 38 inches in length, having a composition of 82% Cu, 13% tin,
and 5% Zn.
• The bar contains holes of ½-inch diameter × ½-inch depth.
• A highly polished gold plug having a diameter of 1/10 of an inch
comprises three transversely engraved lines and two longitudinal
lines that are inserted into each of these holes.

‘‘ Yard is defined as the distance between the two central transverse

lines of the plug maintained at a temperature of 62 °F (16.67 0C)’’.
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 Fig. 1: Imperial standard yard

• The points at which a horizontal rod is optionally supported to prevent it

from bending are known as Airy points.
• They support a length standard in such a way as to minimize the error due
to bending.
  Distance between the support (d
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 Line standards cont.
Meter
• This standard is also known as international prototype Metre/Meter,
which was established in 1875.

 International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) is an international

organization founded to bring about the unification of measurement systems, to
establish and preserve fundamental international standards and prototypes, to
verify national standards, and to determine fundamental physical constants. The
bureau was established by a convention signed in Paris, France on May 20, 1875.
‘‘It is defined as the distance between the centre positions of the two lines
engraved on the highly polished surface of a 102 cm bar of pure Platinum–
Iridium alloy (90% Platinum and 10% Iridium) maintained at 0°C under
normal atmospheric pressure and having the cross-section of a web.’’ 13
 Fig. 2: International prototype meter

• The top surface of the web contains graduations coinciding with the
neutral axis of the section.
• This type of cross-section provides greater rigidity and economical.
• The bar is inoxidizable and can have a good polish, which is required for
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obtaining good-quality lines.
Disadvantages of Material length standards:
1. Material length standards vary in length over the years owing to molecular
changes in the alloy.
2. The exact replicas of material length standards were not available for use
somewhere else.
3. If these standards are accidentally damaged or destroyed then exact copies
could not be made.
4. Conversion factors have to be used for changing over to metric system. 15
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 Sub-division of Standards
The imperial standard yard and international prototype meter are master

standards and cannot be used for general purpose.

Thus depending upon the importance of accuracy required for the work,

standards are subdivided into four grades.

1. Primary standards:
• Primary standards are preserved carefully and maintained under standard
atmospheric conditions so that they do not change their values.
• This has no direct application to a measuring problem encountered in
engineering.
• These are used only for comparing with secondary standards. International
yard and international meter are examples of standard units of length.
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 Sub-division of standards Cont.

2. Secondary standards:
• They are made as nearly possible to the primary standards are with which
they are compared at intervals.
• These standards are distributed to a number of places for safe custody
and used in their turn for occasional comparison with tertiary standards.
• The standards also act as safeguard the loss or destruction of primary
standards.
Material for secondary standards :
Invar (alloy of nickel and steel), Fuse silica, and Elinvar (an alloy of nickel and
chromium)

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 Sub-division of standards Cont.

3. Tertiary standards:
• Tertiary standards are reference standards employed by NPL and are
used as the first standards for reference in laboratories and
workshops.
• These standards are replicas of secondary standards and are usually
used as references for working standards.

4. Working standards:
• These are used more frequently in workshops and laboratories.
• When compared to the other three standards, the materials used to
make these standards are of a lower grade and cost.

NPL-National Physical Laboratory 20

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 Characteristics of line standards

1. Measurements carried out using a scale are quick and easy and can be
used over a wide range.
2. Even though scales can be engraved accurately, it is not possible to take
full advantage of this accuracy. The engraved lines themselves possess
thickness, making it difficult to perform measurements with high
accuracy.
3. The markings on the scale are not subjected to wear.
4. A scale does not have a built-in datum, which makes the alignment of the
scale with the axis of measurement difficult. This leads to under sizing.
5. A magnifying lens or microscope is required for close tolerance length
measurement. 22
 End standards

• End standards in the form of bars and slip gauges, are in general use in
precision engineering as well as in standard labs such as the NPL.
• A modern end standard consists fundamentally of a block or bar of steel
generally hardened whose end faces are lapped flat.
• End bars: Primary end standards usually consist of bars of carbon steels
about 20 mm diameter and made in size varying from 10 mm to 1200
mm. They are hardened at the ends only.
• Slip gauges : These are made of high grade cast steel and are hardened
throughout. They can measure in the range of 0.0025 to 100 mm.

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 Characteristics of end standards

1. These standards are highly accurate and ideal for making close tolerance
measurement.
2. They measure only one dimension at a time, thereby consuming more
time.
3. The measuring faces of end standards are subjected to wear.

4. They possess a built-in datum because their measuring faces are flat and
parallel and can be positively located on a datum surface.
5. Groups of blocks/slip gauges are wrung together to create the required
size; faulty wringing leads to inaccurate results.

6. Dimensional tolerance as close as 0.0005 mm can be obtained.

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 Wavelength standard

• Material standard are liable to destruction and their dimensions

change with time.
• Monochromatic light has constant wavelength and need not to
preserved.
• It was recommended and decided that Krypton 86 is the most
suitable element if used in a hot cathode discharge lamp maintained
at a temperature of 68 K.
• According to this standard, meter is defined as 1,650,763.73 ×
wavelengths of the red–orange radiation of a Krypton 86 atom in
vacuum. 26
Accuracy and Precision

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Accuracy and Precision

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Accuracy and Precision

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Accuracy and Precision

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 Accuracy and Precision

 Accuracy is being correct and Precision is being consistent. 32

 Sensitivity
• Sensitivity may be defined as the rate of displacement of the indicating
device of an instrument, with respect to the measured quantity.
• Sensitivity of thermometer means that it is the length of increase of the
liquid per degree rise in temperature. More sensitive means more
noticeable expansion.
In other words, sensitivity of an instrument is the ratio of scale spacing to
the scale division value. For example, if on a dial indicator, the scale spacing
is 1 mm and the scale division value is 0.01 mm then sensitivity is 100. It is
also called as Amplification factor or Gearing ratio.

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 Readability
• Readability refers to the ease with which the readings of a measuring
instrument can be read.
• Fine and widely spaced graduation lines improve the readability.
• To make the micrometers more readable they are provided with Vernier
scale or magnifying devices.

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 Calibration
• The calibration of any measuring instrument is necessary to measure the
quantity in terms of standard unit.
• It is carried out by making adjustments such that the read out device
produces zero output for zero input.
• The process whereby the magnitude of the output of a measuring
instrument is related to the magnitude of the input force driving the
instrument (i.e. adjusting a weight scale to zero when there is nothing on it).
• The accuracy of the instrument depends on the calibration.
• If the output of the measuring instrument is linear and repeatable, it can be
easily calibrated.

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 References

1. Raghvendra and Krishnamurthy, Engineering Metrology and

Measurement, 1st edition, Oxford university press.

2. R K Rajput, Mechanical measurement and instrumentation, 1st edition,

Katson books.

3. A Text Book of Engineering Metrology by I C Gupta

4. Engineering Metrology by R K Jain

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