Dimensions and errors.

Any experiment will involve a series of

experiments, and each of these measurements
will be made to a certain degree of accuracy.
E.g calculation of velocity requires the
measurement of time and distance. Using a
stopwatch you may measure time to the
nearest tenth of a second, and using a meter
rule you may find the distance to the nearest
millimetre.
There are two basic types of errors that may appear in the
result

a)Systematic error: Systematic errors in experimental

observations usually come from the measuring instruments.
As the name suggests, these types of errors are due to the
system being used to make the measurement.

This may be due to faulty apparatus. For example, a scale may

be incorrectly calibrated either during manufacture of the
equipment, or because it has changed over a period of time, or
because the instrument is wrongly used by the experimenter.
Often it is not possible to spot a systematic error and experimenters have
to accept the reading on their instruments.
Repeating a reading never removes the systematic error.
The real problem with systematic errors is that it is only possible to check
them by performing the same task with another apparatus.
If the two sets give the same results, the likelihood is that they are both
performing well; however, if there is disagreement in the results a third set
may be needed to resolve any difference.
When systematic errors are small, a measurement is said to be accurate
Two types of systematic error can occur with instruments having a
linear response:

1.Zero error in which the instrument does not read zero when the
quantity to be measured is zero. Eg incorrect zero mark on a
meter or a thermometer whose 0˚C marking is not at the ice point

2.Multiplier or scale factor error in which the instrument

consistently reads changes in the quantity to be measured greater
or less than the actual changes. Eg a stop watch running slowly.
Making a number of readings of a given
quantity and taking an average will not
reduce the overall error.
The accuracy of a measurement is how close
the measurement is to the true value of the
quantity being measured.
The accuracy of measurements is often
reduced by systematic errors, which are
difficult to detect.
b)Random error

Random errors in experimental measurements are

caused by unknown and unpredictable changes in the
experiment. These changes may occur in the measuring
instruments or in the environmental conditions.
Examples of causes of random errors are:

1.electronic noise in the circuit of an

electrical instrument,

2.irregular changes in the heat loss rate from

a solar collector due to changes in the wind.
3.The size of these errors depend on how well the experimenter can use the
apparatus eg response time (timing the mass or period of oscillation with a stop
watch); reading a scale at an angle and so introducing parallax error.

The better the experimenter you are, the smaller will be the random
error that you will introduce into an experiment.
Making a number of readings of a given quantity and taking an average
will reduce the overall error.
Readings with small random errors are said to be precise
The precision of a measurement is how close a number of
measurements of the same quantity agree with each other.
The precision is limited by the random errors. It may usually be
determined by repeating the measurements.
It’s the repeatability of the measurements using a given instrument.
A micrometre screw gauge has a high precision of 0.01mm. Its accuracy
will depend on how uniformly the pitch of the screw has been
manufactured and whether or not there is zero error.
Uncertainty
Uncertainty is the total range of values within which the measurement is
likely to lie.
The values of uncertainties that we have been looking at above are called
absolute uncertainties. E.g 25.4±0.1cm
These values have the same units as the quantity and should be written to
the same number of decimal places.
Dividing the uncertainty by the value itself leaves a dimensionless
quantity (one with no units) and gives us the fractional uncertainty e.g 0.1
divide by 25.4 =0.0039
Percentaging the fractional uncertainty gives the percentage uncertainty
e.g 0.0039 multiply by 100= 0.39%
 Accuracy of readings
The accuracy with which you can quote any reading will depend upon the
smallest scale division on your measuring instrument.
Example: if you measure a length with a ruler and get 6.8cm we assume
that you have been able to measure to ±1mm since that is the last figure in
your answer. This means that the error is 1.5%.
In an experiment you should be aware of which readings are the
inaccurate ones.
All measurements are inaccurate in some extent.
We can measure or estimate the accuracy of a measurement in terms of
either a ‘percentage error’ or an ‘uncertainty’ in its value.eg voltage across
a resistor R=11.0V±2%
Voltage across a resistor R=(11.0±0.2)V
Percentage uncertainty=
(estimated uncertainty/estimated value)×100%
The value you quote should have enough significant figures to match the
uncertainty. It would be wrong to quote the reading of a digital voltmeter
in this case as 11.025V
Combining uncertainties
In the uncertainty equations discussed next, a, b, c, etc. are the quantities
and etc. are the absolute uncertainties in these quantities.
a)Addition and subtraction This is the easiest of the rules because when we
add or subtract quantities we always add their absolute uncertainties.
b)Multiplication and division When we multiply or divide quantities we
add their fractional or percentage uncertainties, so:
C)Raising a quantity to a power when
(where n can be a positive or negative whole, integral, or decimal number)