NATURE OF MATHEMATICS

PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC
 THE PROBLEM
If Mark finds that the
problem in Math is easy,
then Mark is doing the
problem incorrectly.
Mark finds that the
problem in Math is easy.
Therefore, Mark is doing IS THIS A
the problem incorrectly.
VALID
ARGUMENT?
 TERMINOLOGIES
• A proposition is a declarative statement
which is either TRUE (T or 1) or FALSE (F or
0).
• A propositional variable represents a
proposition with an undetermined value.

TRUE (T)
P
FALSE (F)
 Example 1: Proposition
•A.  All cows are brown.
B. The Earth is farther from the Sun than
Venus.
C. Manila is the capital city of China.
D.
E. when .
 Example 2: Not Propositions

•A.  Look out!

B. How far is it to the next town?
C.
 TERMINOLOGIES

• Propositions and
propositional variables
are combined to form
logical operators.
• In this case, the
propositional variables
become operands.
 Negation of a Proposition
• The
  negation of a
proposition is generally
formed by introducing
the word “not”.
• The negation of a
proposition is denoted
by and is read as “not ”.
TRUTH TABLE: NEGATION

P P
T F
F T
Example 3: Negation of a Proposition

•1.   : It will rain today.

: It will not rain today.
2. : John is hardworking.
: John is not hardworking.
3. : Angelyn passed the course.
: Angelyn failed the course.
 Two Propositional Variables

P Q P Q
TRUE (T) T T
TRUE (T)
FALSE (F) T F
TRUE (T) F T
FALSE (F)
FALSE (F) F F
 Conjunction
•  The proposition “ and ”, denoted , is called
the conjunction of and .
• This proposition is true only when both
propositions are true.
• Existence of a false value would result to a
false value of the conjunction.
 TRUTH TABLE: CONJUNCTION
P: Jerald got at least 2.0 in all courses enrolled
last trimester.
Q: Jerald got a GPA of at least 3.0 last trimester.

P Q
 
𝑷 ∧𝑸
T ∧
 
T T
T ∧
 
F F
F ∧
 
T F
F ∧
 
F F
 Example 4: Conjunction

•   : John is intelligent.
: John passed the course.
: John is intelligent and passed the course.
 Disjunction
• The
  proposition “ or ”, denoted by , is called
the disjunction of or .
• This proposition is false only when both
propositions are false.
• Existence of a true value would result to a
true value of the disjunction.
 TRUTH TABLE: DISJUNCTION
P: Mark is assigned by his teacher to compete.
Q: Mark passed the qualifying exam to
compete.

P Q
 
𝑷 ∨𝑸
T ∨
 
T T
T ∨
 
F T
F ∨
 
T T
F ∨
 
F F
 Example 5: Disjunction
•   : Carla is in the library.
: Carla is studying.
: Either Carla is at the library or Carla is
studying or both.
 Implications or Conditionals
• The
  proposition “If , then .”, denoted by is
called an implication or a conditional. It also
means “ implies .”
• Proposition is the hypothesis while
proposition is the conclusion.
 TRUTH TABLE: CONDITIONAL
P: Anton is a dean’s lister.
Q: Anton receives a gift from his parents.

P Q
 
𝑷 ⇒𝑸
T
 
⇒T T
T  
⇒F F
F  
⇒T T
F  
⇒F T
 Example 6: Implications
•: The
  given number is divisible by 6.
: The given number is divisible by 3.
: If the given number is divisible by 6, then the
given number is divisible by 3.
 Biconditionals
•  The proposition “ if and only if ”, denoted by
is called a biconditional. It also means “ is
equivalent to ”
• This proposition is also the conjunction of
two conditionals: .
 TRUTH TABLE:
BICONDITIONALS
P: Sonia is an adult.
Q: Sonia is at least 18 years of age.

P Q
 
𝑷 ⇔𝑸
T
 
⇔T T
T  
⇔F F
F  
⇔T F
F  
⇔F T
 Example 7: Biconditionals
•: The
  given number is even.
: The given number is divisible by 2.
: The given number is even if and only if the
given number is divisible by 2.
 Related Conditionals
•Consider
  the conditional .
• The converse of this conditional is .
• The contrapositive of this conditional is .
• The inverse of this conditional is .
 Example 8a:  Converse (
• Conditional:
  “If the given number is divisible
by 6, then the given number is divisible by 3.”
• Converse: “If the given number is divisible by
3, then the given number is divisible by 6.”
 Example 8b: Contrapositive
 ()

• Conditional:
  “If the given number is divisible
by 6, then the given number is divisible by 3.”
• Contrapositive: “If the given number is not
divisible by 3, then the given number is not
divisible by 6.”
 Example 8c:  Inverse ()
• Conditional:
  “If the given number is divisible
by 6, then the given number is divisible by 3.”
• Inverse: “If the given number is not divisible
by 6, then the given number is not divisible
by 3.”
 Related Conditionals
Question: Which among the related
conditionals is/are equivalent to the original
conditional?
Is a conditional equivalent to its converse?

P Q
 
𝑷 ⇒𝑸 Q P
 
𝑸⇒ 𝑷
T T T T T T
T F F F T T
F T T T F F
F F T F F T

NOT EQUIVALENT!
 Is a conditional equivalent to its
contrapositive?

P Q
 
𝑷 ⇒𝑸  
Q
 
P ¬𝑸 ⇒¬ 𝑷
 

T T T F F T
T F F T F F
F T T F T T
F F T T T T

EQUIVALENT!
Is a conditional equivalent to its inverse?

P Q
 
𝑷 ⇒𝑸 ¬ P¬Q ¬ 𝑷 ⇒¬ 𝑸
     

T T T F F T
T F F F T T
F T T T F F
F F T T T T

NOT EQUIVALENT!
 Summary: Related Conditionals
converse inverse
P Q
 
𝑷 ⇒ 𝑸𝑸⇒ 𝑷 ¬𝑸 ⇒¬ 𝑷¬ 𝑷 ⇒¬ 𝑸
     

T T T T T T
T F F T F T
F T T F T F
F F T T T T
original contrapositive
 Equivalent Statements
• Conditional:
  “If the given number is divisible
by 6, then the given number is divisible by 3.”
• Contrapositive: “If the given number is not
divisible by 3, then the given number is not
divisible by 6.”
 Example 9a: Truth Value Evaluation

•Find
  the truth value of the given propositions
assuming and are TRUE propositions and
propositions and are FALSE.

T T T T
T T
T
 Example 9b: Truth Value Evaluation

•Find
  the truth value of the given propositions
assuming and are TRUE propositions and
propositions and are FALSE.

T T
T F
F T
F
 Truth Tables

• In
  constructing a truth table, the number of
rows is equal to where is the number of
distinct propositional variables.
• For example, if there are 4 propositional
variables, then the truth table will consist of .
 Truth Tables
P Q R P Q R
T T T T
T F T T F
T
T T F T
F F T F F
T F T T
T F F T F
F
F T F F T
F F F F
 Example 10a: Constructing Truth Tables

•Construct
  the truth table for the given
proposition

P Q (P
 
⇒ Q) ⇔(P     
∨ Q)
T T T T T T F T T
T F T F F T F F F
F T F T T T T T T
F F F T F T T T F
 Example 10b: Constructing Truth Tables

•Construct
  the truth table for the given
proposition

¬ (P ∧ Q) ⇔ ∧
       
P Q (Q P)
T T F T T T F T T T
T F T T F F F F F T
F T T F F T F T F F
F F T F F F F F F F
 Example 10c: Constructing Truth Tables

•Construct
  the truth table for the given
proposition

(P ∧ Q) ⇔
     
P Q P
T T T T T F F
T F T F F T F
F T F F T F T
F F F F F F T
 Types of Propositional Forms

There are three types of propositional forms:

• Tautology
• Contradiction
• Contingency
 Tautology

• A
  propositional form that is true under all
circumstances is called a tautology.
• The proposition in Example 10a is an
example of a tautology.
 Contradiction

• A
  propositional form that is false under all
circumstances is called a contradiction.
• The proposition in Example 10b is an
example of a contradiction.
 Contingency
• A
  propositional form that is neither a
tautology nor a contradiction is called a
contingency.
• The proposition in Example 10c is an
example of a contingency.
 Rules of Replacement
Any of the following logically equivalent
expressions can replace each other wherever
they occur:
Rules of Replacement
Rules of Replacement
Rules of Replacement
Rules of Replacement
 Exercise
•Determine
  whether the following propositions
is a tautology, contradiction or contingency.
 Argument
A deductive argument is a collection of
propositions where it is claimed that one of the
propositions, called the conclusion, follows
from the other propositions, called the
premises of the argument.
 Argument
 
𝑷𝟏  
𝑷𝟏  
𝑷𝟏  
𝑷𝟏
 
𝑷𝟐 ∴𝑸
   
𝑷𝟐  
𝑷𝟐
: ∴𝑸
   
𝑷𝟑
 
𝑷𝒏
∴𝑸
 

∴𝑸
 
 Example 11: Deductive Argument

• Premise
  1 : If Mark finds that the problem in
Math is easy, then Mark is doing the problem
incorrectly.
• Premise 2 : Mark finds that the problem in
Math is easy.
• Conclusion : Therefore, Mark is doing the
problem incorrectly.

STATEMENT FORM
 Example 11: Deductive Argument
•Let  us symbolize the given statement form of
the deductive argument. Consider the
following propositional variables:
Mark finds that the problem in Math is easy.
Mark is doing the problem incorrectly.

SYMBOLIC FORM
 Example 11: Deductive Argument

• Premise
  1 : If Mark finds that
the problem in Math is easy,
(𝑨 ⇒ 𝑩)
 

then Mark is doing the

problem incorrectly.
• Premise 2 : Mark finds that
𝑨
 

the problem in Math is easy.

• Conclusion : Therefore, Mark
∴𝑩
 
is doing the problem
incorrectly.
 Valid and Invalid Arguments
• A deductive argument is said to be valid if
whenever all the premises are true, then the
conclusion is also true.
• Otherwise, the deductive argument is invalid.
 
𝑷𝟏 TRUE (T)
 
𝑷𝟐 TRUE (T)
 
∴𝑸 TRUE (T)
 
( 𝑷𝟏 ∧ 𝑷𝟐 ) ⇒ 𝑸
 Valid and Invalid Arguments
•The
  deductive argument

is valid if and only if the propositional form

is a tautology.
Example 12a: Valid and Invalid Arguments

•Consider
  the following SYMBOLIC FORM of the
deductive argument in Example 11:
Premise 1 :
Premise 2 :
Conclusion :
Write it in propositional form.
Example 12a: Valid and Invalid Arguments

•PROPOSITIONAL
  FORM:

¿(𝑨 ⇒ 𝑩) ∧ 𝑨¿ ⇒ 𝑩
           
Example 12b: Valid and Invalid Arguments

Determine if the propositional form in Example

12a is a tautology or not.

¿(𝑨 ⇒ 𝑩) ∧ 𝑨¿ ⇒ 𝑩
           
Example 12b: Valid and Invalid Arguments

A B [(A
 
⇒ B)
 
∧ A] ⇒
 
B
T T T T T T T T T
T F T F F F T T F
F T F T T F F T T
F F F T F F F T F
ARGUMENT IS
TAUTOLOGY
VALID!
Example 13: Valid and Invalid Arguments

•Determine
  if this argument is valid or not.
• Premise 1 : Jade is in class or Jade eats fruits.
• Premise 2 : Jade is not in class.
• Conclusion : Therefore, Jade does not eat
fruits.

STATEMENT FORM
Example 13: Valid and Invalid Arguments

•Let  us symbolize the given statement form of

the deductive argument. Consider the
following propositional variables:
Jade is in class.
Jade eats fruits.

SYMBOLIC FORM
Example 13: Valid and Invalid Arguments

• Premise
  1 : Jade is
( 𝑨 ∨ 𝑩)
 
in class or Jade
eats fruits.
• Premise 2 : Jade is
¬𝑨
 
not in class.
• Conclusion :
Therefore, Jade
∴¬ 𝑩
 

does not eat fruits.

Example 13: Valid and Invalid Arguments

A B [(A
 
∨ B)
 
∧ A]   
⇒  
B
T T T T T F F T F
T F T T F F F T T
F T F T T T T F F
F F F F F F T T T

NOT A ARGUMENT IS
TAUTOLOGY INVALID!
 Rule of Inference: Addition

•1.  Addition

 
Premise 1: Francis is smart.
Conclusion: Therefore, Francis is smart or
pancakes are yummy.
 Rule of Inference: Simplification

•2.  Simplification

 
Premise 1: Mark passed the board exam and
Mark went to have a vacation.
Conclusion: Therefore, Mark passed the board
exam.
 Example 14a: Simplification

•2.  Simplification

Give the appropriate conclusion using

simplification rule.
 
𝑷 𝑸
 

 
Answer:
 Rule of Inference: Conjunction
•3.  Conjunction

 
Premise 1: Eunice is beautiful.
Premise 2: Eunice is full of elegance.
Conclusion: Therefore, Eunice is beautiful and
Eunice is full of elegance.
 Example 14b: Conjunction
•3.  Conjunction

Give the appropriate conclusion using

conjunction rule.  
𝑷
𝑸
 

 
Answer:
 Rule of Inference: Modus Ponens

•4.  Modus Ponens

 
Premise 1: If Jeth gets at least 60 points, then
Jeth passes the test.
Premise 2: Jeth gets at least 60 points.
Conclusion: Therefore, Jeth passes the test.
 Example 14c: Modus Ponens
•4.  Modus Ponens

Give the appropriate conclusion using modus

ponens rule.
𝑷 
𝑸 

 
𝑷
 
Answer:
 Rule of Inference: Modus Tollens

•5.  Modus Tollens

 
Premise 1: If Jeth gets at least 60 points, then
Jeth passes the test.
Premise 2: Jeth fails the test.
Conclusion: Therefore, Jeth gets less than 60
points.
 Example 14d: Modus Tollens
•5.  Modus Tollens

Give the appropriate conclusion using modus

tollens rule.
𝑷
 
𝑸  

 
¬𝑸
 
Answer:
 Rule of Inference: Disjunctive Syllogism

•6.  Disjunctive Syllogism

 
Premise 1: The food is delicious or the drink is
cold.
Premise 2: The food is not delicious.
Conclusion: Therefore, the drink is cold.
 Example 14e: Disjunctive Syllogism

•6.  Disjunctive Syllogism

Give the appropriate conclusion using

disjunctive syllogism rule.
𝑷
 
𝑸
 

 
¬𝑷
 
Answer:
 Rule of Inference: Hypothetical Syllogism

•7.  Hypothetical Syllogism

 
Premise 1: If the food is hot, then the water is clear.
Premise 2: If the water is clear, then today is sunny.
Conclusion: Therefore, if the food is hot, then today is
sunny.
Rule of Inference: Hypothetical Syllogism

•7.  Hypothetical Syllogism

Give the appropriate conclusion using

hypothetical syllogism rule.
 
𝑷  
𝑸
 
𝑸  
𝑹
 
Answer:
 Code

A – Addition
S – Simplification
CO – Conjunction
MP – Modus Ponens
MT – Modus Tollens
DS – Disjunctive Syllogism
HS – Hypothetical Syllogism
 Formal Proof of Validity
• Using truth tables to prove the validity of
arguments is tedious as the number of
propositional variables increases.
• Instead, we utilize the rules of inference to
construct a formal proof to show if an
argument is valid or not.
Example 15a: Proof of Validity

1,S
3,A
2,4,MP
3,5,C
Example 15b: Proof of Validity

1,2,MP
6,3,DS
4,7,MP
8,S
5,9,MT
 Example 15c: Proof of Validity
•Construct
  a formal proof of validity for the
given argument:
 Example 15c: Proof of Validity
   
•1.   Addition Simplification
2.
3.
     
4. 2,3,DS Modus Disjunctive
 
5. 1,4,MP Ponens Syllogism
 
6. 5,S
 
7. 6,A
 Example 15d: Proof of Validity
•Construct
  a formal proof of validity for the
given argument:
 Example 15d: Proof of Validity
 
 
Conjunction Hypothetical
•1.  
Syllogism
2.
3.
4.
   
Disjunctive Modus Tollens
 
5. 4,2,MT Syllogism
 
6. 3,5,DS
 
7. 1,4,HS
 
8. 7,6,CO
 Exercise
•Construct
  a formal proof of validity for the
following argument:
 Propositional Functions
• A
  propositional function (or predicate) is a
complete declarative sentence that makes a
statement about the variable .
• We call the argument of .
• If is assigned with a particular value, then
becomes a proposition with a definite truth
value.
 Example 16: Propositional Functions

•: is
  an integer divisible by 3.
: is the capital city of country .
What are the truth values of the following?
TRUE
FALSE
FALSE?
TRUE
 Categorical Propositions

• A proposition may contain quantifiers. These

are words that specifies a quantity to a
predicate.
• The words used are “All” and “Some”.
• Propositions that contain quantifiers are
called categorical propositions.
Example 17: Categorical Propositions

• All GEMATMW students in the master class

passed the first quiz.
• Some GEMATMW students in the master
class passed the first quiz.
 Proving the Truthfulness and Falsity of
Categorical Propositions

• How do we show that the

categorical proposition using the
quantifier “All” is TRUE? FALSE?
• How do we show that the
categorical proposition using the
quantifier“Some” is TRUE?
FALSE?
 Notation: Categorical Propositions

•  For all in the set , the statement is true.

• : For some in the set , the statement is true.
 Negation of Categorical Propositions

•  
 Example 18a: Negation of Categorical
Propositions

State the negation of the statement: “All

GEMATMW students in the master class passed
the first quiz.”

Answer: “Some GEMATMW students in the

master class failed the first quiz.”
 Example 18b: Negation of Categorical
Propositions

State the negation of the statement: “Some

GEMATMW students in the master class passed
the first quiz.”

Answer: “All GEMATMW students in the master

class failed the first quiz.”
 Example 19a: Categorical Propositions and
Arguments

Consider the argument:

All athletes are strong.
John is an athlete.
Therefore, John is strong.
From the sound of the argument, is it valid?

VALID!
 Example 19b: Categorical Propositions and
Arguments

Consider the argument:

Some athletes are strong.
John is an athlete.
Therefore, John is strong.
From the sound of the argument, is it valid?

INVALID!
 Direct Proof

• A
  proof that that the implication is true by
showing that is true if is true.
• Example: Use the method of direct proof to
show that “If is odd, then is odd.”
 Direct Proof

•  
Suppose that is odd.
• Then, for some integer .
• So,
• Hence, is odd.
 Indirect Proof

• A
  proof that that the implication is true by
showing that must be false whenever is
false.
• Example: Use the method of indirect proof to
show that “If is odd, then is odd.”
 Indirect Proof
•  
Suppose that is even.
• Then, for some integer .
• So,
• Hence, is even.
• The negation of the conclusion implies that
the hypothesis is false means that the
original implication is true.