Temperature Measurements

Temperature is one of the most commonly used and measured engineering variables. Much
of our lives is affected by the diurnal and seasonal variations in ambient temperature, but the
fundamental scientific definition of temperature and a scale for the measurement of
temperature are not commonly understood. This chapter explores the establishment of a
practical temperature scale and common methods of temperature measurement. In addition,
errors associated with the design and installation of a temperature sensor are discussed.
Upon completion of this chapter, the reader will be able to
• describe the primary standards for temperature,
• state the role of fixed point calibration and the necessity for an interpolation method in
• establishing a temperature standard,
• describe and analyze thermal expansion thermometry,
• state the physical principle underlying electrical resistance thermometry,
• employ standard relationships to determine temperature from resistance devices,
• analyze thermoelectric circuits designed to measure temperature,
• describe experiments to determine thermoelectric potential for material pairs,
• state the principles employed in radiation temperature measurements, and
• estimate the impact of loading errors in temperature measurement.
 Historical Background

• Guillaume Amontons (1663–1705), a French scientist, was one of the first to

explore the thermodynamic nature of temperature. His efforts examined the
behavior of a constant volume of air that was subject to temperature
changes. The modern liquid-in-glass bulb thermometer traces its origin to
Galileo (1565–1642).
• A temperature scale proposed by Gabriel D. Fahrenheit, a German physicist
(1686–1736), in 1715 attempted to incorporate body temperature as the
median point on a scale having 180 divisions between the freezing point and
the boiling point of water. Fahrenheit also successfully used mercury as the
liquid in a bulb thermometer, making significant improvements over the
attempts of Ismael Boulliau in 1659. In 1742, the Swedish astronomer
Anders Celsius1 (1701–1744) described a temperature scale that divided the
interval between the boiling and freezing points of water at 1 atm pressure
into 100 equal parts.
 TEMPERATURE STANDARDS AND DEFINITION

• Temperature can be loosely described as the property of an object that describes its
hotness or coldness, concepts that are clearly relative. Our experiences indicate that
heat transfer tends to equalize temperature, or more precisely, systems that are in
thermal communication eventually have equal temperatures. The zeroth law of
thermodynamics states that two systems in thermal equilibrium with a third system are
in thermal equilibrium with each other. Thermal equilibrium implies that no heat transfer
occurs between the systems, defining the equality of temperature. Although the zeroth
law of thermodynamics essentially provides the definition of the equality of
temperature, it provides no means for defining a temperature scale.
• A temperature scale provides for three essential aspects of temperature measurement:
(1) the definition of the size of the degree,
(2) fixed reference points for establishing known temperatures, and
(3) a means for interpolating between these fixed temperature points.
 Fixed Point Temperatures and Interpolation
• To begin, consider the definition of the triple point of water as having a value of
0.01 for our temperature scale, as is done for the Celsius scale (0.01C). This
provides for an arbitrary starting point for a temperature scale; in fact, the
number value assigned to this temperature could be anything. On the Fahrenheit
temperature scale it has a value very close to 32. Consider another fixed point on
our temperature scale. Fixed points are typically defined by phase-transition
temperatures or the triple point of a pure substance. The point at which pure
water boils at one standard atmosphere pressure is an easily reproducible fixed
temperature. For our purposes let’s assign this fixed point a numerical value of
100.
• The next problem is to define the size of the degree. Since we have two fixed
points on our temperature scale, we can see that the degree is 1/100th of the
temperature difference between the ice point and the boiling point of water at
atmospheric pressure.
• Conceptually, this defines a workable scale for the measurement of temperature;
however, as yet we have made no provision for interpolating between the two
fixed-point temperatures.
 Interpolation

• The calibration of a temperature measurement device entails not only the establishment of fixed
temperature points but also the indication of any temperature between fixed points. The
operation of a mercury-in-glass thermometer is based on the thermal expansion of mercury
contained in a glass capillary where the level of the mercury is read as an indication of the
temperature. Imagine that we submerged the thermometer in water at the ice point, made a
mark on the glass at the height of the column of mercury, and labeled it 0ᵒC, as illustrated in
Figure 8.1. Next we submerged the thermometer in boiling water, and again marked the level of
the mercury, this time labeling it 100ᵒC.
• Using reproducible fixed temperature points we have calibrated our thermometer at two points;
• however, we want to be able to measure temperatures other than these two fixed points. How
can we determine the appropriate place on the thermometer to mark, say, 50ᵒC?
• The process of establishing 50ᵒC without a fixed-point calibration is called interpolation. The
simplest option would be to divide the distance on the thermometer between the marks
representing
• The process of establishing 50C without a fixed-point calibration is called interpolation. The
simplest option would be to divide the distance on the thermometer between the marks
representing 0 and 100 into equally spaced degree divisions
 Interpolation
• This places 50ᵒC as shown in Figure 8.1. What assumption is implicit in
this method of interpolation? It is obvious that we do not have enough
information to appropriately divide the interval between 0 and 100 on
the thermometer into degrees.
• A theory of the behavior of the mercury in the thermometer or many
fixed points for calibration are necessary to resolve our dilemma.
• Even by the late eighteenth century, there was no standard for
interpolating between fixed points on the temperature scale; the result
was that different thermometers indicated different temperatures away
from fixed points, sometimes with surprisingly large errors.
 Temperature Scales and Standards
• At this point, it is necessary to reconcile this arbitrary temperature scale with the idea of
absolute temperature. Thermodynamics defines a temperature scale that has an absolute
reference, and defines an absolute zero for temperature. For example, this absolute temperature
governs the energy behavior of an ideal gas, and is used in the ideal gas equation of state. The
behavior of real gases at very low pressure may be used as a temperature standard to define a
practical measure of temperature that approximates the thermodynamic temperature.
• The unit of degrees Celsius (ᵒC) is a practical scale related to the Kelvin as ᵒC = K -273.15.
• The modern engineering definition of the temperature scale is provided by a standard called the
International Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS-90) (3). This standard establishes fixed points for
temperature, and provides standard procedures and devices for interpolating between fixed
points. It establishes the Kelvin (K) as the unit for the fundamental increment in temperature.
Temperatures established according to ITS-90 do not deviate from the thermodynamic
temperature scale by more than the uncertainty in the thermodynamic temperature at the time
of adoption of ITS-90.
• The primary fixed points from ITS-90 are shown in Table 8.1. In addition to these fixed points,
other fixed points of secondary importance are available in ITS-90.
 Standards for Interpolation
• Along with the fixed temperature points established by ITS-90, a standard for
interpolation between these fixed points is necessary. Standards for acceptable
thermometers and interpolating equations are provided in ITS-90. For temperatures
ranging from 13.8033 to 1234.93 K, ITS-90 establishes a platinum resistance
thermometer as the standard interpolating instrument, and establishes interpolating
equations that relate temperature to resistance.
• Above 1234.93 K, temperature is defined in terms of blackbody radiation, without
specifying an instrument for interpolation .
• In summary, temperature measurement, a practical temperature scale, and standards
for fixed points and interpolation have evolved over a period of about two centuries.
Present standards for fixed-point temperatures and interpolation allow for practical and
accurate measurements of temperature. In the United States, the National Institute of
Standards and Technology (NIST) provides for a means to obtain accurately calibrated
platinum wire thermometers for use as secondary standards in the calibration of a
temperature measuring system to any practical level of uncertainty.
THERMOMETRY BASED ON THERMAL EXPANSION

• Most materials exhibit a change in size with changes in temperature.

Since this physical phenomenon is well defined and repeatable, it is
useful for temperature measurement.
• The liquid-in-glass thermometer and the bimetallic thermometer are
based on this phenomenon
Liquid-in-Glass Thermometers

• A liquid-in-glass thermometer measures temperature by virtue of the

thermal expansion of a liquid.
• The construction of a liquid-in-glass thermometer is shown in Figure
8.2. The liquid is contained in a glass structure that consists of a bulb
and a stem. The bulb serves as a reservoir and provides sufficient fluid
for the total volume change of the fluid to cause a detectable rise of
the liquid in the stem of the thermometer. The stem contains a
capillary tube, and the difference in thermal expansion between the
liquid and the glass produces a detectable change in the level of the
liquid in the glass capillary.
Liquid –in –Glass Thermometer
Pressure and Velocity Measurements
 Barometer
• A barometer consists of an inverted tube
containing a fluid and is used to measure
atmospheric pressure. To create the
barometer, the tube, which is sealed at only
one end, is evacuated to zero absolute
pressure. The tube is immersed with the
open end down within a liquid-filled
reservoir as shown in the illustration of the
Fortin barometer in Figure 9.4. The reservoir
is open to atmospheric pressure, which
forces the liquid to rise up the tube.
 Manometer

• A manometer is an instrument used to measure differential pressure

based on the relationship between pressure and the hydrostatic
equivalent head of fluid.
Flow Measurements
FLOW MEASUREMENT
INTRODUCTION
• Flow measurement is an everyday event.
• The world market in flowmeters was estimated to be worth $2500 million in
1995, and is expected to grow steadily.
• The value of product being measured by these meters is also very large. For
example, in the U.K. alone, it was estimated that in 1994 the value of crude oil
produced was worth $15 billion.
• It is somewhat surprising that both the accuracy and capability of many
flowmeters are poor in comparison to those instruments used for measurement
of other common process variables such as pressure and temperature.
INTRODUCTION
• For example, the orifice plate flowmeter, which was first used commercially in the
early 1900s and has a typical accuracy of ± 2% of reading, is still the only
flowmeter approved by most countries for the fiscal measurement of natural gas.
• Although newer techniques such as Coriolis flowmeters have become increasingly
popular in recent years, the flow measurement industry is by nature conservative
and still dominated by traditional measurement techniques.
• Fluid motion in a pipe can be characterized as one of three types: laminar,
transitional, or turbulent.
Principles of Fluid Flow in Pipes
• In laminar flow , the fluid travels as parallel layers (known as streamlines) that do
not mix as they move in the direction of the flow.
• If the flow is turbulent, the fluid does not travel in parallel layers, but moves in a
haphazard manner with only the average motion of the fluid being parallel to the
axis of the pipe.
• If the flow is transitional , then both types may be present at different points
along the pipeline or the flow may switch between the two.
• In 1883, Osborne Reynolds performed a classic set of experiments that showed
that the flow characteristic can be predicted using a dimensionless number, now
known as the Reynolds number.
Principles of Fluid Flow in Pipes
• The Reynolds number Re is the ratio of the inertia forces in
the flow to the viscous forces in the flow and can be
calculated using:

• If Re < 2000, the flow will be laminar.

• If Re > 4000, the flow will be turbulent.
• If 2000<Re<4000, the flow is transitional
• The Reynolds number is a good guide to the type of flow
Principles of Fluid Flow in Pipes
Principles of Fluid Flow in Pipes
• The Bernoulli equation defines the
relationship between fluid velocity (v),
fluid pressure (p), and height (h) above
some fixed point for a fluid flowing
through a pipe of varying cross-section,
and is the starting point for
understanding the principle of the
differential pressure flowmeter.
• Bernoulli’s equation states that:
Bernoulli’s equation can be used to measure flow rate.
Consider the pipe section shown in figure below. Since the pipe is horizontal, h 1 = h 2, and the
equation reduces to:
Principles of Fluid Flow in Pipes
• The conservation of mass principle requires that:
 Differential Pressure Flowmeters
The Orifice Plate

• The orifice plate is the simplest and cheapest. It is

simply a plate with a hole of specified size and position
cut in it, which can then clamped between flanges in a
pipeline
• The increase that occurs in the velocity of a fluid as it
passes through the hole in the plate results in a
pressure drop being developed across the plate.
• After passing through this restriction, the fluid flow jet
continues to contract until a minimum diameter known
as the vena contracta is reached.
The Orifice Plate
The Orifice Plate

• The orifice plate is the simplest and cheapest.

• The increase that occurs in the velocity of a fluid as it passes through the
hole in the plate results in a pressure drop being developed across the
plate. After passing through this restriction, the fluid flow jet continues to
contract until a minimum diameter known as the vena contracta is reached.
• The equation to calculate the flow must be modified to
Orifice

FIGURE 6 Orifice discharge coefficient.

 The Venturi Tube

• The classical or Herschel Venturi tube is the oldest type of differential pressure
flowmeter (1887).
• The restriction is introduced into the flow in a more gradual way
• The resulting flow through a Venturi tube is closer to that predicted in theory so the
discharge coefficient C is much nearer unity (0.95).
• The pressure loss caused by the Venturi tube is lower, but the differential pressure is
also lower than for an orifice plate of the same diameter ratio.
 The Venturi Tube
• The smooth design of the Venturi tube means that it is less sensitive to erosion
than the orifice plate, and thus more suitable for use with dirty gases or liquids.
• The Venturi tube is also less sensitive to upstream disturbances, and therefore
needs shorter lengths of straight pipework upstream of the meter than the
equivalent orifice plate or nozzle.
• Like the orifice plate and nozzle, the design, installation, and use of the Venturi
tube is covered by a number of international standards.
• The disadvantages of the Venturi tube flowmeter are its size and cost.
FIGURE 2 Discharge coefficient for a rough cast venturi tube of the Herschel
type.
The Nozzle
• The nozzle combines some of the
best features of the orifice plate and
Venturi tube.
• It is compact and yet, because of its
curved inlet, has a discharge
coefficient close to unity.
• There are a number of designs of
nozzle, but one of the most
commonly used in Europe is the ISA-
1932 nozzle, while in the U.S., the
ASME long radius nozzle is more
popular. Both of these nozzles are
covered by international standards.
Nozzle

Value of C for β = 0.5

Other Differential Pressure Flowmeters
• There are many other types of differential pressure flowmeter, but they are not
very common
• the segmental wedge, V-cone, elbow, and Dall tube.
• Each of these has advantages over the orifice plate, Venturi tube, and nozzle for
specific applications.
• For example, the segmental wedge can be used with flows having a low Reynolds
number,
• Dall tube has a lower permanent pressure loss than a Venturi tube.
• However, none of these instruments are yet covered by international standards
and, thus, calibration is needed to determine their accuracy.
Choice of Flowmeter
• Choosing which flowmeter is best for a particular application can be very difficult.
• The main factors that influence this choice are the required performance, the
properties of the fluid to be metered, the installation requirements, the
environment in which the instrument is to be used, and, of course, cost.
• There are two standards that can be used to help select a flowmeter: BS 1042:
Section 1.4, which is a guide to the use of the standard differential pressure
flowmeters
• BS 7405, which is concerned with the wider principles of flowmeter selection
Installation
• Correct installation is essential for successful use of a DP
flowmeter because the assumption of a steady flow, with a
fully developed turbulent velocity profile, is passing through
the flowmeter.
• Standards contain detailed recommendations for the minimum
straight lengths of pipe required before and after the
flowmeter, in order to ensure a fully developed flow profile.
• Straight lengths of pipe are required after the flowmeter
because disturbances caused by a valve or bend can travel
upstream and thus also affect the installed flowmeter.
• If it is not possible to fit the recommended lengths of straight
pipe before and after the flowmeter, then the flowmeter must
be calibrated once it has been installed.
Installation
• The Minimum Straight Lengths of Pipe Required between
Various Fittings and an Orifice Plate or Venturi Tube (as
recommended in ISO 5167-1) to Ensure That a Fully Developed
Flow Profile Exists in the Measurement Section. All Lengths Are
Multiples of the Pipe Diameter
Installation
• The other problem one faces during installation is the presence
of a rotating flow or swirl.
• This condition distorts the flow velocity profile in a very
unpredictable way, and is obviously not desirable.
• Situations that create swirl, such as two 90° bends in different
planes, should preferably be avoided.
• However, if this is not possible, then swirl can be removed by
placing a flow conditioner (also known as a flow straightener)
between the source of the swirl and the flowmeter.
• There many flow conditioner designs which can be used to
both remove swirl and correct a distorted velocity profile.
• Because they obstruct the flow, all flow conditioners produce
an unrecoverable pressure loss,
• which in general increases with their capability (and
complexity).
Differential Pressure measurement
• The other main element of a differential pressure flowmeter is
the transducer needed to measure the pressure drop.
• The correct selection and installation of the differential
pressure transducer plays an important part in determining the
accuracy of the flow rate measurement.
• The main factors that should be considered are the differential
pressure range, the accuracy required, the maximum pipeline
pressure, and the type and temperature range.
• Most DP transducers consist of a pressure capsule in which
either capacitance, strain gage, or resonant wire techniques
are used to detect the movement of a diaphragm. Using these
techniques, a typical accuracy of ±0.1% of full scale is possible.
 Differential Pressure measurement
• The transducer is usually part of a transmitter, which converts differential
pressure, static pressure, and ambient temperature measurements into a
standardized electrical output signal.
• Smart transmitters use a local, dedicated microprocessor to condition signals
from the individual sensors and compute volumetric or mass flow rate. These
devices can be remotely configured, and a wide range of diagnostic and
maintenance functions are possible using their built-in “intelligence.”
• The transmitter should be located as close to the differential producer as
possible.
• This ensure a fast dynamic response and reduces problems caused by vibration of
the connecting tubes.
 Differential Pressure measurement

• The position of the pressure tappings is also important.

• If liquid flow in a horizontal pipe is being measured, then the pressure tappings
should be located at the side of the pipe so that they cannot be blocked with dirt
or filled with air bubbles.
• For horizontal gas flows, if the gas is clean, the pressure tappings should be
vertical;
• if steam or dirty gas is being metered, then the tappings should be located at the
side of the pipe.
• For further details on the installation of differential pressure transmitters, see ISO
2186.
Variable Area Flowmeters
• The term variable area flowmeters refers to those meters in which
the minimum cross-sectional area available to the flow through the
meter varies with the flow rate.
• Meters of this type include the rotameter and the movable vane
meter used in pipe flows, and the weir or flume used in open-channel
flows.
• The measure of the flow rate is a geometrical quantity such as the
height of a bob in the rotameter, the angle of the vane, or the change
in height of the free surface of the liquid flowing over the weir or
through the flume.
Rotameter
• Rotameter consists of a conical
transparent vertical glass tube
containing a “bob”.
• The flow rate is proportional to the
height of the bob.
• The rotameter is characterized by:
• Simple and robust construction
• High reliability
• Low pressure drop
Rotameter
• Applicable to a wide variety of gases and liquids
• Flow range 0.04 L/h to 150 m3/h for water
• Flow range 0.5 L/h to 3000 m3/h for air
• Uncertainty 0.4% to 4% of maximum flow
• Insensitivity to nonuniformity in the inflow (no upstream straight piping
needed)
• Typical maximum temperature 400°C
• Typical maximum pressure 4 MPa (40 bar)
• Low investment cost
• Low installation cost
The movable vane
• The movable vane meter is a robust device
suitable for the measurement of high flow
rates where only moderate requirements on
the measurement accuracy are made.
• Dirty fluids can also be metered. It contains a
flap that at zero flow is held closed by a weight
or a spring
• A flow forces the vane open until the dynamic
force of the flow is in balance with the
restoring force of the weight or the spring.
• The angle of the vane is thus a measure of the
flow rate, which can be directly indicated by a
pointer attached to the shaft of the vane on a
calibrated scale.
Weir
Summary
• For pipe flows, variable area flowmeters are suitable for low flow rates of gases or
liquids at moderate temperatures and pressures.
• Advantage rugged construction, high reliability, low pressure drop, easy
installation, and low cost.
• Disadvantages measurement uncertainty of 1% or more, limited range (10:1),
slow response, and restrictions on the meter orientation.
• Variable area flowmeters in open-channel flows have applications for flow
measurements in waste water plants, waterworks, rivers and streams, irrigation,
and drainage canals.
Positive Displacement Flowmeters

• A positive displacement flowmeter, commonly called a PD meter, measures the

volume flow rate of a continuous flow stream by momentarily entrapping a
segment of the fluid into a chamber of known volume and releasing that fluid
back into the flow stream on the discharge side of the meter.
• By monitoring the number of entrapments for a known period of time or number
of entrapments per unit time, the total volume of flow or the flow rate of the
stream can be ascertained.
• The total volume and the flow rate can then be displayed locally or transmitted to
a remote monitoring station.
Sliding-vane type PD meter.

Piston Type PD Meter

Tri-Rotor Type PD Meter

Oval Gear PD Meter

Birotor PD Meter
Advantages PD Meters
• Advantages PD Meters
• High-quality, high accuracy, a wide range, and are very reliable,
insensitive to inlet flow profile distortions, low pressure drop across
the meter.
• Until the introduction of electronic correctors and flow controls on
other types of meters, PD meters were most widely used in batch
loading and dispensing applications. All mechanical units can be
installed in remote locations.
Disadvantages PD Meters
• bulky, especially in the larger sizes.
• the fluid must be clean for measurement accuracy and longevity of themeter.
• More accurate PD meters are quite expensive.
• Have high inertia of the moving parts; a sudden change in the flow rate can
damage the meter.
• Only for limited ranges of pressure and temperature
• Most PD meters require a good maintenance schedule and are high repair and
maintenance meters.
• Recurring costs in maintaining a positive displacement flowmeter can be a
significant factor in overall flowmeter cost.
Axial• Turbine Flowmeters
The modern axial turbine flowmeteris a reliable device capable of providing
the highest accuracies attainable by any currently available flow sensor for
both liquid and gas volumetric flow measurement. It is the product of
decades of intensive innovation and refinements to the original axial vaned
flowmeter principle first credited to Woltman in 1790, and at that time
applied to measuring water flow.
• The initial impetus for the modern development activity was largely the
increasing needs of the U.S. natural gas industry in the late 1940s and
1950s for a means to accurately measure the flow in large-diameter, high-
pressure, interstate natural gas lines.
• Today, due to the tremendous success of this principle, axial turbine
flowmeters of different and often proprietary designs are used for a variety
of applications where accuracy, reliability, and rangeability are required in
numerous major industries besides water and natural gas, including oil,
petrochemical, chemical process, cryogenics, milk and beverage,
aerospace, biomedical, and others.
Axial Turbine Flowmeters
 Axial Turbine Flowmeters
• The meter is a single turbine rotor, concentrically mounted on a shaft within a
cylindrical housing through which the flow passes.
• The shaft or shaft bearings are located by end supports inside suspended
upstream and downstream aerodynamic structures called diffusers, stators, or
simply cones.
• The flow passes through an annular region occupied by the rotor blades. The
blades, which are usually flat but can be slightly twisted, are inclined at an angle
to the incident flow velocity and hence experience a torque that drives the rotor.
• The rate of rotation, which can be up to several ×104 rpm
• A magnetic pick up coil detect the rotation
 Axial Turbine Flowmeters
• Axial turbines perform best when measuring clean, conditioned,
steady flows of gases and liquids with low kinematic viscosities (below
about 10–5 m2s–1, 10 cSt, although they are used up to 10–4 m2s–1, 100
cSt), and are linear for subsonic, turbulent flows.
• Under these conditions, the inherent mechanical stability of the
meter design gives rise to excellent repeatability performance. Not
including the special case of water meters, which are described later,
the main performance characteristics are:
• Sizes range from 6 mm to 760 mm, (1/4 in. to 30 in.).
• Maximum measurement capacities range from 0.025 m3 h–1 to
25,500 m3 h–1, (0.015 CFM to 15,000 CFM), for gases and 0.036
m3 h–1 to 13,000 m3 h–1, (0.16 gpm to 57,000 gpm or 82,000
barrels per hour), for liquids.
• Typical repeatability is ±0.1% for liquids and ±0.25% for gases
with up to ±0.02% for high-accuracy meters.
• Typical linearities are between ±0.25% and ±0.5% for liquids,
and ±0.5% and ±1.0% for gases.
• High-accuracy meters have linearities of ±0.15% for liquids and
±0.25% for gases, usually specified over a 10:1dynamic range
below maximum rated flow.
• Traceability to NIST (National Institute of Standards and
Technology) is frequently available, allowing one to estimate
the overall absolute accuracy
• Rangeability, when defined as the ratio of flow rates over
which the linearity specification applies, is typically between
10:1 and 100:1.
• Operating temperature –270°C to 650°C, (–450°F to 1200°F).
• Operating pressure ranges span coarse vacuum to 414 MPa
(60,000 psi).
• Pressure drop at the maximum rated flow rate ranges from
around 0.3 kPa (0.05 psi) for gases to 70 kPa (10 psi) for liquids.
Impeller Flowmeters
Impeller Flow meter
Flow Rate Measurement
Volume Flow rate