Fundamentals of Distance

Protection

GE Multilin
Outline
• Transmission line introduction
• What is distance protection?
• Non-pilot and pilot schemes
• Redundancy considerations
• Security for dual-breaker terminals
• Out-of-step relaying
• Single-pole tripping
• Series-compensated lines

2/
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November 24, 2020
Transmission Lines
A Vital Part of the Power System:
• Provide path to transfer power between generation and load
• Operate at voltage levels from 69kV to 765kV
• Deregulated markets, economic, environmental requirements have
pushed utilities to operate transmission lines close to their limits.

3/
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November 24, 2020
Transmission Lines

Classification of line length depends on:

 Source-to-line Impedance Ratio (SIR), and
 Nominal voltage
Length considerations:
 Short Lines: SIR > 4
 Medium Lines: 0.5 < SIR < 4
 Long Lines: SIR < 0.5

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November 24, 2020
Typical Protection Schemes
Short Lines

• Current differential
• Phase comparison
• Permissive Overreach Transfer Trip (POTT)
• Directional Comparison Blocking (DCB)

5/
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November 24, 2020
Typical Protection Schemes
Medium Lines

• Phase comparison
• Directional Comparison Blocking (DCB)
• Permissive Underreach Transfer Trip (PUTT)
• Permissive Overreach Transfer Trip (POTT)
• Unblocking
• Step Distance
• Step or coordinated overcurrent
• Inverse time overcurrent
• Current Differential
6/
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November 24, 2020
Typical Protection Schemes
Long Lines

• Phase comparison
• Directional Comparison Blocking (DCB)
• Permissive Underreach Transfer Trip (PUTT)
• Permissive Overreach Transfer Trip (POTT)
• Unblocking
• Step Distance
• Step or coordinated overcurrent
• Current Differential

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November 24, 2020
What is distance protection?

Intended
REACH point

F1

Z I*Z
V=I*ZF
I*Z -
V

For internal faults:

RELAY (V,I)
> IZ – V and V approximately in
phase (mho)
> IZ – V and IZ approximately in
phase (reactance)
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November 24, 2020
What is distance protection?
F2
Intended
REACH point

Z I*Z
V=I*ZF
I*Z -
V

For external faults:

RELAY (V,I)
> IZ – V and V approximately out
of phase (mho)
> IZ – V and IZ approximately
out of phase (reactance)
9/
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November 24, 2020
What is distance protection?

Intended
REACH point

RELAY

10 /
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November 24, 2020
Source Impedance Ratio, Accuracy &
Speed Relay
Lin
System e

f LOC [ PU ]
Voltage at the relay: VR  VN
f LOC[ PU ]  SIR

Consider SIR = 0.1

Fault location Voltage Voltage change (%)
(%)
75% 88.24 2.76
90% 90.00 0.91
100% 90.91 N/A
110% 91.67 0.76
11 /
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November 24, 2020
Source Impedance Ratio, Accuracy &
Speed Relay
System
Lin
e f LOC [ PU ]
Voltage at the relay: VR  VN
f LOC[ PU ]  SIR

Consider SIR = 30
Fault location Voltage Voltage change (%)
(%)
75% 2.4390 0.7868
90% 2.9126 0.3132
100% 3.2258 N/A
110% 3.5370 0.3112
12 /
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November 24, 2020
Challenges in relay design
> Transients: 30

– High frequency
20
steady-state
– DC offset in currents output
10
– CVT transients in voltages

voltage, V
0
High Volta ge Line

C1 6 -10
3 5 CVT output
1
-20
C2
2
Seconda ry Volta ge
-30
0 1 2 3 4
power cycles
Output

13 /
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November 24, 2020
Challenges in relay design
> Transients: 60
– High frequency
40
– DC offset in currents steady-state
output
20
– CVT transients in voltages

voltage, V
0
High Volta ge Line

C1 6 -20
CVT
3 5 output
1
-40
C2
2
Seconda ry Volta ge
-60
0 1 2 3 4
power cycles
Output

14 /
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November 24, 2020
Challenges in relay design
100 100
vA vB vC
80

60

40

Reactance comparator [V]

20
50
Volta ge [V]

-20 SPOL
-40

-60
0 Sorry… Future (unknown)
-80

-100
-0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
-50
5
iA
4

3
SOP
-100
2 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
Current [A]

power cycles
1

-1
iB, iC > In-phase = internal fault
-2 > Out-of-phase = external fault
-3
-0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
15 /
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November 24, 2020
Transient Overreach

• Fault current generally contains dc offset in

addition to ac power frequency component
• Ratio of dc to ac component of current depends
on instant in the cycle at which fault occurred
• Rate of decay of dc offset depends on system X/R

16 /
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November 24, 2020
Zone 1 and CVT Transients
Capacitive Voltage Transformers (CVTs) create certain
problems for fast distance relays applied to systems with high
Source Impedance Ratios (SIRs):
> CVT-induced transient voltage components may assume
large magnitudes (up to 30-40%) and last for a
comparatively long time (up to about 2 cycles)
> 60Hz voltage for faults at the relay reach point may be as
low as 3% for a SIR of 30
> the signal may be buried under noise

17 /
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November 24, 2020
Zone 1 and CVT Transients
CVT transients can cause distance relays to overreach.
Generally, transient overreach may be caused by:
> overestimation of the current (the magnitude of the current
as measured is larger than its actual value, and
consequently, the fault appears closer than it is actually
located),
> underestimation of the voltage (the magnitude of the
voltage as measured is lower than its actual value)
> combination of the above

18 /
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November 24, 2020
Distance Element Fundamentals

Z1 End Zone

XL

XC
 15
15
34
34 42
42 44
44
Actual
ActualFault
Fault
Locatio n
Location
10
10
dynami
dynamic cmhomho
zone extended
zone extended Line
forforhigh Line
30
30
highSIRs
SIRs Impedance
Impedance
5
5
Reactance [ohm]
Reactance [ohm]

18
18 Trajectory
Trajectory
22
22 (msec)
(msec)
0
0

26
26

-5
-5 -10
-10
-5
-5
Resistance [ohm]
0
0 Impedance
5
Impedance
5 locus
10
locus
10 may
maypass
pass
Resistance [ohm]
below
belowthe theorigin
originof ofthe
theZ-plane
Z-plane--
this
thiswould
wouldcall
callforforaatime
timedelay
delay
to
toobtain
obtainstability
stability
20 /
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November 24, 2020
CVT Transient Overreach Solutions
> apply delay (fixed or adaptable)
> reduce the reach
> adaptive techniques and better filtering algorithms

21 /
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November 24, 2020
CVT Transients – Adaptive Solution
> Optimize signal filtering:
– currents - max 3% error due to the dc component
– voltages - max 0.6% error due to CVT transients
> Adaptive double-reach approach
– filtering alone ensures maximum transient overreach at
the level of 1% (for SIRs up to 5) and 20% (for SIRs up
to 30)
– to reduce the transient overreach even further an
adaptive double-reach zone 1 has been implemented

22 /
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November 24, 2020
CVT Transients – Adaptive Solution
The outer zone 1:
> is fixed at the actual reach
> applies certain security delay to cope with CVT transients

X
The inner zone 1:
> has its reach dynamically Delayed
Trip
controlled by the voltage
magnitude
> is instantaneous

Instantaneous
Trip

23 /
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November 24, 2020
Desirable Distance Relay Attributes
Filters:
> Prefiltering of currents to remove dc decaying transients
– Limit maximum transient overshoot (below 2%)
> Prefiltering of voltages to remove low frequency transients
caused by CVTs
– Limit transient overreach to less than 5% for an SIR of 30
> Accurate and fast frequency tracking algorithm
> Adaptive reach control for faults at reach points

24 /
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November 24, 2020
Distance Relay Operating Times

25 /
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November 24, 2020
Distance Relay Operating Times

35ms
25ms 30ms
20ms

15ms

26 /
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November 24, 2020
Distance Relay Operating Times

SLG faults LL faults

3P faults

27 /
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November 24, 2020
 Actual
Actualmaximum
maximumreach
reachcurves
curves
100
100
Relay 4
90
90

80
80 Relay 3
70
70
[%]
Rach[%]

60
60
MaximumRach

50
50
Maximum

40
40
Relay 2
30
30

20
20
Relay 1
10
10

00
00 55 10
10 15
15 20
20 25
25 30
30
SIR
SIR

28 /
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November 24, 2020
Maximum Torque Angle

• Angle at which mho element has maximum reach

• Characteristics with smaller MTA will
accommodate larger amount of arc resistance

29 /
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November 24, 2020
 Mho Characteristics
Traditional

Directional angle
“slammed”

Directional angle
lowered and
“slammed”

Both MHO and

directional angles
“slammed” (lens)

30 /
GE /
November 24, 2020
Load Swings

+XL

+ = LOOKING INTO LINE

normally considered
forward
h
Reac

Load Trajectory

Operate No Operate area

area
Typical load characteristic
impedance

+R
31 /
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November 24, 2020
Load Swings

“Lenticular”
Characteristic

Load swing

32 /
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November 24, 2020
Load Encroachment Characteristic

The load encroachment element responds to positive

sequence voltage and current and can be used to block
phase distance and phase overcurrent elements. 33 /
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November 24, 2020
Blinders

• Blinders limit the operation of distance relays

(quad or mho) to a narrow region that parallels and
encompasses the protected line
• Applied to long transmission lines, where mho
settings are large enough to pick up on maximum
load or minor system swings

34 /
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November 24, 2020
Quadrilateral Characteristics

35 /
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November 24, 2020
Quadrilateral Characteristics

Ground Resistance
(Conductor falls on ground)

R Resultant impedance outside of

the mho operating region
XL

36 /
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November 24, 2020
Distance Characteristics - Summary
Mho Lenticular Quadrilateral
JX

R
Standard for phase Used for phase elements with Better coverage for
elements long heavily loaded lines ground faults due to
heavily loaded resistance added to
return path

37 /
GE /
November 24, 2020
Distance Element Polarization

The following polarization quantities are commonly used in

distance relays for determining directionality:
• Self-polarized
• Memory voltage
• Positive sequence voltage
• Quadrature voltage
• Leading phase voltage

38 /
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November 24, 2020
Memory Polarization
> Positive-sequence memorized voltage is used for polarizing:
– Mho comparator (dynamic, expanding Mho)
– Negative-sequence directional comparator (Ground Distance
Mho and Quad)
– Zero-sequence directional comparator (Ground Distance
MHO and QUAD)
– Directional comparator (Phase Distance MHO and QUAD)
> Memory duration is a common distance settings (all zones,
phase and ground, MHO and QUAD)

39 /
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November 24, 2020
Memory Polarization
jX Static MHO characteristic (memory not established or expired

ZL
Dynamic MHO characteristic for a reverse fault

Dynamic MHO characteristic for a forward fault

Impedance During Close-up Faults

ZS

40 /
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November 24, 2020
Memory Polarization
jX Static MHO characteristic (memory not established or expired)

ZL

Dynamic MHO characteristic for a forward fault

RL

ZS

Memory Polarization…Improved Resistive Coverage 41 /

GE /
November 24, 2020
Choice of Polarization

• In order to provide flexibility modern distance

relays offer a choice with respect to polarization
of ground overcurrent direction functions:
– Voltage polarization
– Current polarization
– Dual polarization

42 /
GE /
November 24, 2020
Ground Directional Elements
> Pilot-aided schemes using ground mho distance relays have
inherently limited fault resistance coverage
> Ground directional over current protection using either negative
or zero sequence can be a useful supplement to give more
coverage for high resistance faults
> Directional discrimination based on the ground quantities is fast:
– Accurate angular relations between the zero and negative
sequence quantities establish very quickly because:
 During faults zero and negative-sequence currents and
voltages build up from very low values (practically
from zero)
 The pre-fault values do not bias the developing fault
components in any direction
43 /
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November 24, 2020
Distance Schemes

Pilot Aided Schemes Non-Pilot Aided Schemes

(Step Distance)

Communication between No Communication between

Distance relays Distance Relays

44 /
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November 24, 2020
Step Distance Schemes
• Zone 1:
– Trips with no intentional time delay
– Underreaches to avoid unnecessary operation for faults beyond remote terminal
– Typical reach setting range 80-90% of ZL
• Zone 2:
– Set to protect remainder of line
– Overreaches into adjacent line/equipment
– Minimum reach setting 120% of ZL
– Typically time delayed by 15-30 cycles
• Zone 3:
– Remote backup for relay/station failures at remote terminal
– Reaches beyond Z2, load encroachment a consideration

45 /
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November 24, 2020
Step Distance Schemes
Local
Z1
BUS

BUS
Z1
Remote

46 /
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November 24, 2020
Step Distance Schemes
Local
Z1 End Zone
BUS

BUS
End Zone Z1
Remote

47 /
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November 24, 2020
Step Distance Schemes
Local
Z1
Breaker
Tripped
BUS

BUS
Breaker
Closed Z1
Remote

48 /
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November 24, 2020
Step Distance Schemes
Local
Z2 (time delayed)

Z1
BUS

BUS
Z1

Z2 (time delayed)
49 /
Remote GE /
November 24, 2020
Step Distance Schemes
Z3 (remote backup) …
Z2 (time delayed)

Z1
BUS

BUS
50 /
GE /
November 24, 2020
Step Distance Protection

51 /
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November 24, 2020
Distance Relay Coordination
Over Lap

Local Relay – Z2

Remote Relay – Z4

Local Relay Remote Relay

Zone 2 PKP Zone 4 PKP

52 /
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November 24, 2020
Need For Pilot Aided Schemes

BUS

BUS
Local Relay Remote Relay

Communication Channel

53 /
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November 24, 2020
Pilot Communications Channels
• Distance-based pilot schemes traditionally utilize simple on/off
communications between relays, but can also utilize peer-to-
peer communications and GOOSE messaging over digital
channels
• Typical communications media include:
– Pilot-wire (50Hz, 60Hz, AT)
– Power line carrier
– Microwave
– Radio
– Optic fiber (directly connected or multiplexed channels)

54 /
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November 24, 2020
Distance-based Pilot Protection

55 /
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November 24, 2020
Pilot-Aided Distance-Based Schemes

 DUTT – Direct Under-reaching Transfer Trip

 PUTT – Permissive Under-reaching Transfer Trip
 POTT – Permissive Over-reaching Transfer Trip
 Hybrid POTT – Hybrid Permissive Over-reaching
Transfer Trip
 DCB – Directional Comparison Blocking Scheme
 DCUB – Directional Comparison Unblocking
Scheme

56 /
GE /
November 24, 2020
Direct Underreaching Transfer Trip
(DUTT)
• Requires only underreaching (RU) functions which overlap
in reach (Zone 1).
•Applied with FSK channel
– GUARD frequency transmitted during normal
conditions
– TRIP frequency when one RU function operates
• Scheme does not provide tripping for faults beyond RU
reach if remote breaker is open or channel is inoperative.
• Dual pilot channels improve security

57 /
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November 24, 2020
DUTT Scheme

Zone 1

Bus Bus
Line

Zone 1

58 /
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November 24, 2020
Permissive Underreaching Transfer
Trip (PUTT)
• Requires both under (RU) and overreaching (RO)
functions
• Identical to DUTT, with pilot tripping signal
supervised by RO (Zone 2)

59 /
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November 24, 2020
PUTT Scheme
Zone 2

Zone 1
To protect end of
line
Bus Bus
Line

Zone 1

Zone 2

Rx PKP
Local Trip
Zone 2
&
OR
Zone 1
60 /
GE /
November 24, 2020
Permissive Overreaching Transfer
Trip (POTT)
• Requires overreaching (RO) functions (Zone 2).
• Applied with FSK channel:
– GUARD frequency sent in stand-by
– TRIP frequency when one RO function operates
• No trip for external faults if pilot channel is
inoperative
• Time-delayed tripping can be provided

61 /
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November 24, 2020
POTT Scheme
Zone 2

Zone 1

Bus Bus
Line

Zone 1

Zone 2

(Z1) Tx

Zone 1

Trip
(Z1) Rx OR Line
AND Breakers

Zone 2 t
o
62 /
GE /
November 24, 2020
POTT Scheme
POTT – Permissive Over-reaching Transfer Trip

BUS End Zone

BUS
63 /
Communication Channel GE /
November 24, 2020
POTT Scheme
Local Relay
Local Relay
FWD IGND Remote Relay
FWD IGND
Local Relay – Z2

Remote Relay – Z2

Communication
TRIP Channel

POTT RX POTT TX

Local Relay ZONE 2 PKP Remote Relay

ZONE 2 PKP
OR
OR
Ground Dir OC Fwd Ground Dir OC Fwd 64 /
GE /
November 24, 2020
POTT Scheme

Communications
POTT RX 1 POTT TX 1 A to G

Channel(s)
POTT RX 2 POTT TX 2 B to G

POTT RX 3 POTT TX 3 C to G

POTT RX 4 POTT TX 4 Multi Phase

Local Relay Remote Relay

65 /
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November 24, 2020
POTT Scheme
Current reversal example
TRIP

Local Relay Remote Relay

Timer
Start Communication
Timer
Expire Channel

GND
GNDDIR
DIROC
OCFWD
REV POTT RX POTT TX ZONE
GND 2 OC
DIR ORREV
GND DIR OC FWD
66 /
GE /
November 24, 2020
POTT Scheme
Echo example
Remote FWD
IGND
Open

Remote – Z2

OPEN Communication
Channel
TRIP

POTT RX POTT TX

Local Relay POTT TX POTT RX Remote Relay

Communication
Channel 67 /
GE /
November 24, 2020
Hybrid POTT

• Intended for three-terminal lines and weak infeed

conditions
• Echo feature adds security during weak infeed
conditions
• Reverse-looking distance and oc elements used to
identify external faults

68 /
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November 24, 2020
Hybrid POTT
Zone 2

Zone 1
Remote Local
Weak
Bus Bus system
Line

Zone 1 Zone 4

Zone 2

69 /
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November 24, 2020
Directional Comparison Blocking
(DCB)
• Requires overreaching (RO) tripping and blocking (B)
functions
• ON/OFF pilot channel typically used (i.e., PLC)
– Transmitter is keyed to ON state when blocking
function(s) operate
– Receipt of signal from remote end blocks tripping relays
• Tripping function set with Zone 2 reach or greater
• Blocking functions include Zone 3 reverse and low-set
ground overcurrent elements

70 /
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November 24, 2020
DCB Scheme
Zone 2

Zone 1
Remote Local

Bus Bus
Line

Zone 1

Zone 2

71 /
GE /
November 24, 2020
Directional Comparison Blocking (DCB)

BUS End Zone

BUS
72 /
Communication Channel GE /
November 24, 2020
Directional Comparison Blocking (DCB)
Internal Faults
Local Relay – Z2

FWD IGND

TRIP
TRIP Timer
Start
Expired
Zone 2 PKP
NO Dir Block RX
OR
Local Relay GND DIR OC Fwd Remote Relay
73 /
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November 24, 2020
Directional Comparison Blocking (DCB)
External Faults
Local Relay – Z2

FWD IGND
Remote Relay – Z4

TRIP Timer REV IGND

Start No TRIP
Dir Block RX DIR BLOCK TX
Local Relay Remote Relay
Zone 2 PKP Communication Zone 4 PKP
Channel
OR OR

GND DIR OC Fwd GND DIR OC Rev 74 /

GE /
November 24, 2020
Directional Comparison Unblocking
(DCUB)
• Applied to Permissive Overreaching (POR) schemes to
overcome the possibility of carrier signal attenuation or
loss as a result of the fault
• Unblocking provided in the receiver when signal is lost:
– If signal is lost due to fault, at least one permissive
RO functions will be picked up
– Unblocking logic produces short-duration TRIP
signal (150-300 ms). If RO function not picked up,
channel lockout occurs until GUARD signal returns

75 /
GE /
November 24, 2020
DCUB Scheme

  Forward

Bus Bus
Line

Forward

Trip
(Un-Block) Tx1 Line
Breakers

(Block) Tx2

Forward

(Block) Rx2 AND

AND
AND t
o
AND
(Un-Block) Rx1

76 /
Lockout GE /
November 24, 2020
Directional Comparison Unblocking
(DCUB)

BUS End Zone

BUS
77 /
Communication Channel GE /
November 24, 2020
 Directional Comparison Unblocking
(DCUB)
Normal conditions

Load Current

FSK Carrier FSK Carrier

GUARD1 RX GUARD1 TX
Local Relay Remote Relay
NO Loss of Guard GUARD2 TX GUARD2 RX NO Loss of Guard
NO Permission NO Permission
Communication
Channel 78 /
GE /
November 24, 2020
 Directional Comparison Unblocking
(DCUB)
Normal conditions, channel failure

Load Current

Loss of Channel
FSK Carrier FSK Carrier

GUARD1
NO RX RX GUARD1 TX
Local Relay Remote Relay
Loss of Guard GUARD2 TX GUARD2
NO RX RX Loss of Guard
Block Timer Expired
Started Block Timer Expired
Started
Communication
Block DCUB Channel Block DCUB 79 /
until Guard OK until Guard OK GE /
November 24, 2020
Directional Comparison Unblocking
(DCUB)
Internal fault, healthy
Localchannel
Relay – Z2

Remote Relay – Z2

TRIP TRIP Z1
FSK Carrier FSK Carrier

GUARD1
TRIP1 RXRX GUARD1
TRIP1 TX
Local Relay Remote Relay
Zone 2 PKP ZONE 2 PKP
GUARD2
TRIP2 TX TX GUARD2
TRIP2 RXRX

Loss of Guard
Communication 80 /
Permission
Channel GE /
November 24, 2020
 Directional Comparison Unblocking
(DCUB)
Internal fault, channel
Localfailure
Relay – Z2

Remote Relay – Z2
Loss of Channel
TRIP TRIP Z1
FSK Carrier FSK Carrier

GUARD1
NO RX RX GUARD1
TRIP1 TX
Local Relay Remote Relay
Zone 2 PKP ZONE 2 PKP
GUARD2
TRIP2 TX TX GUARD2
NO RX RX
Loss of Guard Loss of Guard
Block Timer Started Communication 81 /
Duration Timer Expired
Started Channel GE /
November 24, 2020
Redundancy Considerations
• Redundant protection systems increase dependability of the
system:
 Multiple sets of protection using same protection principle and
multiple pilot channels overcome individual element failure, or
 Multiple sets of protection using different protection principles
and multiple channels protects against failure of one of the
protection methods.
• Security can be improved using “voting” schemes (i.e., 2-out-of-3),
potentially at expense of dependability.
• Redundancy of instrument transformers, battery systems, trip coil
circuits, etc. also need to be considered.

82 /
GE /
November 24, 2020
 Redundant Communications
End Zone

BUS

BUS
AND Channels: OR Channels:
POTT Less Reliable POTT More Reliable
Communication Channel 1
DCB Less Secure DCB More Secure
Communication Channel 2
More Channel Security More Channel Dependability
Loss of Channel 2 83 /
GE /
November 24, 2020
Redundant Pilot Schemes

84 /
GE /
November 24, 2020
Pilot Relay Desirable Attributes
• Integrated functions:
weak infeed
echo
line pick-up (SOTF)
• Basic protection elements used to key the
communication:
distance elements
fast and sensitive ground (zero and negative
sequence) directional IOCs with current, voltage,
and/or dual polarization

85 /
GE /
November 24, 2020
Pilot Relay Desirable Attributes
Pre-programmed distance-based pilot schemes:
 Direct Under-reaching Transfer Trip (DUTT)
 Permissive Under-reaching Transfer Trip (PUTT)
 Permissive Overreaching Transfer Trip (POTT)
 Hybrid Permissive Overreaching Transfer Trip (HYB POTT)
 Blocking scheme (DCB)
 Unblocking scheme (DCUB)

86 /
GE /
November 24, 2020
Security for dual-breaker terminals
• Breaker-and-a-half and ring bus terminals are common
designs for transmission lines.
• Standard practice has been to:
– sum currents from each circuit breaker externally by
paralleling the CTs
– use external sum as the line current for protective
relays
• For some close-in external fault events, poor CT
performance may lead to improper operation of line relays.

87 /
GE /
November 24, 2020
Security for dual-breaker terminals

Accurate CTs preserve the

reverse current direction under
weak remote infeed

88 /
GE /
November 24, 2020
Security for dual-breaker terminals

Saturation of CT1 may invert

the line current as measured
from externally summated
CTs

89 /
GE /
November 24, 2020
Security for dual-breaker terminals
• Direct measurement of currents
from both circuit breakers allows the
use of supervisory logic to prevent
distance and directional overcurrent
elements from operating incorrectly
due to CT errors during reverse faults.
• Additional benefits of direct
measurement of currents:
 independent BF protection for
each circuit breaker
 independent autoreclosing for
each breaker

90 /
GE /
November 24, 2020
Security for dual-breaker terminals
Supervisory logic should:
– not affect speed or sensitivity of protection elements
– correctly allow tripping during evolving external-to-internal
fault conditions
– determine direction of current flow through each breaker
independently:
• Both currents in FWD direction  internal fault
• One current FWD, one current REV  external fault
– allow tripping during all forward/internal faults
– block tripping during all reverse/external faults
– initially block tripping during evolving external-to-internal
faults until second fault appears in forward direction. Block
is then lifted to permit tripping.
91 /
GE /
November 24, 2020
Single-pole Tripping

• Distance relay must correctly identify a SLG fault

and trip only the circuit breaker pole for the faulted
phase.
• Autoreclosing and breaker failure functions must
be initiated correctly on the fault event
• Security must be maintained on the healthy phases
during the open pole condition and any reclosing
attempt.
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Out-of-Step Condition

• For certain operating conditions, a severe system

disturbance can cause system instability and result
in loss of synchronism between different
generating units on an interconnected system.

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Out-of-Step Relaying
Out-of-step blocking relays
– Operate in conjunction with mho tripping relays to prevent a
terminal from tripping during severe system swings & out-of-
step conditions.
– Prevent system from separating in an indiscriminate manner.
Out-of-step tripping relays
– Operate independently of other devices to detect out-of-step
condition during the first pole slip.
– Initiate tripping of breakers that separate system in order to
balance load with available generation on any isolated part of
the system.

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Out-of-Step Tripping The locus must stay
When the inner for some time between
characteristic is the outer and middle
entered the element is characteristics
ready to trip

Must move and stay

between the middle
and inner
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characteristics GE /
November 24, 2020
Power Swing Blocking
Applications:
> Establish a blocking signal for stable power swings (Power Swing
Blocking)
> Establish a tripping signal for unstable power swings (Out-of-Step
Tripping)
Responds to:
> Positive-sequence voltage and current

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Series-compensated lines
Benefits of series capacitors:
• Reduction of overall XL of long lines
• Improvement of stability margins
• Ability to adjust line load levels
• Loss reduction
• Reduction of voltage drop during severe disturbances
• Normally economical for line lengths > 200 miles

Xs SC XL
E Infinte
Bus

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Series-compensated lines
SCs create unfavorable conditions for protective relays and fault
locators:
• Overreaching of distance elements
• Failure of distance element to pick up on low-current faults
• Phase selection problems in single-pole tripping applications
• Large fault location errors

Xs SC XL
E Infinte
Bus

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Series-compensated lines
Series Capacitor with MOV

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November 24, 2020
Series-compensated lines

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Series-compensated lines
Dynamic Reach Control

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Series-compensated lines
Dynamic Reach Control for External Faults

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Series-compensated lines
Dynamic Reach Control for External Faults

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Series-compensated lines
Dynamic Reach Control for Internal Faults

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Distance Protection Looking Through
a Transformer
• Phase distance elements can be set to see beyond any 3-
phase power transformer
• CTs & VTs may be located independently on different
sides of the transformer
• Given distance zone is defined by VT location (not CTs)
• Reach setting is in sec, and must take into account
location & ratios of VTs, CTs and voltage ratio of the
involved power transformer

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November 24, 2020
Transformer Group Compensation

Depending on location of VTs and CTs, distance relays need to compensate for
the phase shift and magnitude change caused by the power transformer
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Setting Rules
• Transformer positive sequence impedance must be
included in reach setting only if transformer lies between
VTs and intended reach point
• Currents require compensation only if transformer located
between CTs and intended reach point
• Voltages require compensation only if transformer located
between VTs and intended reach point
• Compensation set based on transformer connection &
vector group as seen from CTs/VTs toward reach point

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November 24, 2020
Distance Relay Desirable Attributes
> Multiple reversible distance zones
> Individual per-zone, per-element characteristic:
– Dynamic voltage memory polarization
– Various characteristics, including mho, quad, lenticular
> Individual per-zone, per-element current supervision (FD)
> Multi-input phase comparator:
– additional ground directional supervision
– dynamic reactance supervision
> Transient overreach filtering/control
> Phase shift & magnitude compensation for distance applications
with power transformers

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November 24, 2020
Distance Relay Desirable Attributes
> For improved flexibility, it is desirable to have the following
parameters settable on a per zone basis:
– Zero-sequence compensation
– Mutual zero-sequence compensation
– Maximum torque angle
– Blinders
– Directional angle
– Comparator limit angles (for lenticular characteristic)
– Overcurrent supervision

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November 24, 2020
Distance Relay Desirable Attributes
> Additional functions
– Overcurrent elements (phase, neutral, ground, directional,
negative sequence, etc.)
– Breaker failure
– Automatic reclosing (single & three-pole)
– Sync check
– Under/over voltage elements
> Special functions
– Power swing detection
– Load encroachment
– Pilot schemes

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 111 /
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