Analytic Geometry IIIA

ANALYTIC
GEOMETRY
Analytic Geometry
This chapter is devoted to the geometric

representation of equations of the second degree
in the rectangular coordinates x and y. These
equations are also called quadratic equations.
Analytic Geometry
The graphs of quadratic equations are curves

called conic sections. They include the circle, the
ellipse, the parabola, and the hyperbola.
Analytic Geometry
Properties of these curves were already known

before by the ancient Greeks. A more systematic
description of their properties was made possible
by two great French mathematicians, Rene
Descartes and Pierre de Fermat.
THE CONIC
SECTIONS
The Conic Sections
Objectives
1. Make geometric representations of a circle, an
ellipse, a parabola, and a hyperbola.
2. Recognize whether an algebraic equation

represents a circle, an ellipse, a parabola, or a
hyperbola.
3. Describe the properties of a circle, an ellipse, a

parabola, and a hyperbola.
The Conic Sections
4. Draw the graphs of equations of the four conics.
5. Analyze the characteristics of the conics by

manipulating the equations involved.
6. Deduce the equation of a particular conic, given the

geometric conditions of the graph.
7. Solve problems involving a circle, an ellipse, a

parabola, and a hyperbola.
The Geometric
Properties of
Curves
The Geometric Properties of Curves
Historical Perspective
The history of mathematics tells us that the conics
were already studied extensively by the ancient
Greeks. It was Apollonius of Perga (3rd century B. C.)
who wrote an extensive treatise on these curves which
he called conic sections. In fact, he was able to
produce 8 books and about 400 propositions or
theorems on the subject. Apollonius is credited for
having given the names ellipse, parabola, and
hyperbola.
The Greeks defined the conics in terms of the

curves of the intersection of a plane and a right circular
cone and studied them in the context of geometry. A
plane is made to cut two inverted right circular cones
connected together at their vertices. The cones are
called nappes. The four basic conics are formed in
such a way that the intersecting plane does not pass
through the vertex of the cones.
If the plane cuts one

nappe perpendicular to
the cone axis as in the
figure, the figure formed
is a circle.

nappe at an angle with
the cone axis, the
resulting figure is an
ellipse.

nappe parallel to the side
of a cone, the figure
formed is a parabola.
Finally, if the plane

intersects both nappes
and is parallel to the cone
axis, the figure is a
hyperbola.
When the cutting plane crosses the vertex, the

figure formed is called a degenerate conic. There
are three degenerate cases of the conic sections.
If the cutting plane

passes through the vertex
perpendicular to the cone
axis, we get a point as
shown in the figure. This
is known as a degenerate
ellipse.
If the plane cuts

through a side of the
cones through the vertex,
we have a single line.
This is known as a
degenerate parabola.
If the cutting plane

passes through the cone
axis containing the vertex
and two sides of the cone,
we obtain two
intersecting lines. This is
known as a degenerate
hyperbola.
Conics in the
Coordinate Plane
Conics in the Coordinate Plane
In the coordinate plane, the conics can be

described by quadratic equations of the general
form,
Ax2 + By2 + Cxy + Dx + Ey + F = 0
where A and B are not both zero.

In this chapter, we shall discuss the different

forms of the quadratic equation representing the
four conics, their geometric properties, and how
to sketch their graphs.
For convenience, we will assume that C = 0

and, except for the circle, discussions will be
limited to conics whose centers (or vertex, in the
case of the parabola) are at a origin. Other types
and translation of axes are left to higher
mathematics at the college level.
For each type of conics, two forms of

equations are presented:
a. The standard form where geometric properties

like radius, focus, and vertex can be obtained;
and
b. The general form.

THE CIRCLE
The Circle
The most common conic found in nature is the

circle. It is also one of the simplest mathematical
curves.
The Circle
A circle is the set of all points (x, y) in the

plane whose distance from a fixed point is a
constant. The fixed point is called the center,
while the distance from the center is called the
radius.
Center at the
Origin
Center at the Origin
y
Drawn in the figure P(x,y)
is a circle whose center
is at the origin, C(0, 0), r
x
and radius is r. C(0,0)
Let P(x, y) be a point

on the circle.
Then using the y

distance formula P(x,y)
between two points, r
r = √(x – 0)2 + (y – 0)2 x
= √x2 + y2 C(0,0)
Squaring both sides of
the equation,
x2 + y 2 = r 2
y
This equation gives P(x,y)
us the standard form or r
center-radius form of x
the equation of a circle C(0,0)
with center at the origin
and radius r.
Example 1.1
Find the equation of the circle given in the figure.
Solution:
Given: C(0, 0) y
Radius r = 3/2
Applying the equation
of the circle, x
C
x2 + y2 = (3/2)2
x2 + y2 = 9/4
Multiplying the r=3
equation by 4, 2
4x2 + 4y2 = 9
Example 1.1
Find the equation of the circle given in the figure.
Solution:
If we substitute x with – y
x and y with –y,
(–x)2 + (–y)2 = r2
x2 + y2 = r2 x
C
The equation remains
the same implying that
the circle with C(0, 0) is r=3
symmetric with respect 2
to the x-axis, y-axis and
the origin.
Example 1.2
Find the equation of the circle whose center is at
the origin and passes through the point P(3,-4).
Solution: y
Given: C(0,0) & P(3,-4)
Since the radius is the
distance between the x
C
center and any point on
the circle, we apply the r
distance formula, P(3,-4)
r = √(3–0)2 + (–4–0)2
=5
Example 1.2
the origin and passes through the point P(3,-4).
Solution: y
Applying the equation

of the circle, x
C
x2 + y2 = (5)2
x2 + y2 = 25 r
P(3,-4)
From the given examples, we notice the

following about the equation of a circle whose
center is at the origin.
1. The equation is quadratic in both variables x
and y.
2. The coefficients of x2 and y2 are equal.
3. There are no x and y terms.
From these properties, we obtain the general

form of the equation of a circle whose center is at
the origin:
Ax2 + Ay2 +E = 0
Suppose that we are given the equation of a

circle in general form. How do we obtain its
geometric properties and sketch its graph?
We transform this equation into the standard

form in order to obtain its center and radius.
Then, we plot the center, measure out the radius
from the center, and draw the circle using a
compass.
Example 1.3
Write the following equations in standard form.
Then, determine the center and radius, and sketch
the graph of the equation.
a. x2 + y2 =1
9 9
b. 3x2 + 3y2 – 12 = 0
c. 5x2 + 5y2 = 0
d. 4x2 + 4y2 + 16 = 0
Example 1.3
y x2 + y 2 = 1
a. x2 + y2 =1 9 9
9 9
Solution: C r=3 x
To change the equation
to standard form, we
multiply it by 9, the P(3,-4)
LCD.
( 9 )
9 x2 + y2 = (1)9
9 Thus, C(0,0) and the
x2 + y2 = 9 or (3)2 radius is 3.
Example 1.3
y
b. 3x2 + 3y2 – 12 = 0
Solution:
To transform the C r=2 x
equation into standard
form, we first transpose
the constant to the other
side of the equation and
3x2 + 3y2 – 12 = 0
divide the equation by 3.
3x2 + 3y2 = 12 The center is at C(0,0)
3 3 and the radius is 2.
x2 + y2 = 4 or (2)2
Example 1.3
y
c. 5x + 5y = 0
2 2 5x2 + 5y2 = 0
Solution:
If we divide the equation
x
by 5, we obtain the
equation,
x2 + y2 = 0 or x2 + y2 =
0
5
What does this equation
This means that the
mean? The center is at
equation is a point, the
the origin and the radius
origin.
is 0.
Example 1.3
d. 4x2 + 4y2 + 16 = 0
Solution:
If we transpose the constant to the other side of
the equation and divide by 4, we obtain,
4x2 + 4y2 = –16
4 4
x2 + y2 = –4
Thus, the center is at (0,0) and the radius is √–4,
an imaginary number. Since the radius is a
measure of distance and must be a non-negative
number, then the circle does not exist.
Example 1.3
d. 4x2 + 4y2 + 16 = 0
Solution:
Another way to explain the equation is by

considering both sides of it. The expression x2 +
y2 on the left-hand side is always greater than or
equal to 0. Hence, when this is equated to a
negative number, the resulting equation has no
solution. That is, there is no point (x, y)
satisfying x2 + y2 = 4.
In general, we have three cases of the general

form of the equation Ax2 + Ay2 + E = 0.
Case 1. When –E > 0, we have a circle whose

center
A
is at the origin and radius r =√ –E .
A
Case 2. When E = 0, we have a circle of zero

radius, the origin. This is called a degenerate
circle or point-circle.
Case 3. When –E < 0, there is no circle at all in the

A
xy-plane.
Center at Point
C(h, k)
Center at Point C(h, k)
y
P(x,y)
Let us now consider r
a circle with center at
k
C(h, k) and having a C(h,k)
radius r as shown in the x
figure. 0 h
Applying the y
distance formula for P(x,y)
two points C(h, k) and r
P(x, y), we solve for the
k
value of r. C(h,k)
r = √(x – h)2 + (y – k)2 x
Squaring both sides, we 0 h
get,
(x – h)2 + (y – k)2 = r2
y
(x – h)2 + (y – k)2 = r2 P(x,y)
r
This equation is the
k
standard form of the C(h,k)
equation of a circle x
whose center is at 0 h
C(h, k) and radius is r.
Example 1.4
(-2, 3) and radius is 4.
Solution: y
Given: C(-2, 3) and r = 4
h = -2 and k = 3
Substituting the values, C(-2,3)
the equation of the circle r=4
is, x
[x–(-2)]2 + (y–3)2 = (4)2
(x+2)2 + (y–3)2 = 16
Example 1.5
Determine the equation of the circle with center at
(1, -2) and passes through the point (5, -5).
Solution:
Since the circle passes through the point (5, -5),
then the distance from this point to the center is
equal to the radius of the circle. Applying the
distance formula, the radius of the circle is,
r = √(5–1)2 + [(–5)–(–2)]2
r = √42 + (–3)2
r = √16 + 9
r = √25 = 5
Example 1.5
Determine the equation of the circle with center at
(1, -2) and passes through the point (5, -5).
Solution: y
r = 5 and (h,k) = (1, -2), x
the equation of the circle
is then, C(1,-2)
(x–1)2 + [y–(–2)]2 = (5)2 r
(x–1)2 + (y+2)2 = 25 P(5,-5)
THE ELLIPSE
The Ellipse
Next to the circle, the ellipse is the most

common geometric figure in nature. Johannes
Kepler (1571-1630) discovered that the orbit of a
planet around the sun is an ellipse with the sun as
one of the foci. Mathematics has a precise
definition of the ellipse.
The Ellipse
An ellipse is the set of all points (x, y) in a

plane whose distance from two fixed points in
the plane gives a constant sum. The two fixed
points are called its foci (plural for focus), and
the line that passes through these points is the
principal axis of the ellipse. The constant sum is
greater than the distance between the two foci.
The Ellipse
Before discussing any further, let us define

some properties of the ellipse.
1. Halfway between the two foci is the center of

the ellipse.
2. The points where the curve crosses the

principal axis are called the vertices (plural
for vertex) of the ellipse.
The Ellipse
Before discussing any further, let us define

some properties of the ellipse.
3. The line perpendicular to the principal axis at

the center is the conjugate axis.
4. The points where the curve crosses the

conjugate axis are called the intercepts.
The Ellipse
These parts are shown in the figure.

y
Intercept
Vertex Vertex x
Focus Center Focus
Intercept
Conjugate Axis
The Ellipse
The standard form of the equation of the

ellipse whose center is at the origin is
x2 + y2 = 1
a2 b2
where a and b are positive and a ≠ b.
The Ellipse
From this equation, we obtain the properties

of the ellipse which will enable us to graph the
equation.
We shall now consider two special cases of
the ellipse whose center is at the origin.
Case 1. When the principal axis is the x-axis.

Case 2. When the principal axis is the y-axis.
When the Principal
Axis is the x-axis
When the Principal Axis is the x-axis
In this case, the constant sum of the distances

from any point given on the ellipse to the two
foci is 2a. With the principal axis at the x-axis
and center at the origin, the foci are
F1(c, 0) and F2(-c, 0). The vertices are at V1(a, 0)
and V2(-a, 0), while the y-intercepts are at
B1(0, b) and B2(0, -b).
y
P(x, y) B1(0, b)
x
V2(-a, 0) F2(-c, 0) F1(c, 0) V1(a, 0)
B2(0, -b)
An ellipse with center at (0, 0) and principal axis at the x-axis

The line segment that joins the vertices is

called the major axis of the ellipse. The line
segment joining the intercepts is called the minor
axis of the ellipse. In the figure, V1V2 is the
major axis with length 2a, while B1B2 is the
minor axis with length 2b.
Since the constant sum is greater than the

distance between the foci, then a > c and a > b. In
fact,
a2 = b2 + c2
How do we construct the graph of the ellipse

x2 + y2 = 1, where a > b?
a2 b 2
The principal axis is on the x-axis. We need to

locate the vertices at (±a, 0) and intercepts at (0,
±b). Then join the points by a smooth curve.
y
(a) b
x
-a a
y
(b) b
-b
x
-a a
-b
If we substitute x with –x and y with –y, what

do we get?
(–x)2 + (–y)2 = 1
a2 b2
x2 + y2 = 1
a2 b 2
The equation does not
change, implying that the ellipse whose center is
at the origin has symmetry with respect to the x-
axis, the y-axis, and the origin.
Example 1.6
Find the standard form of the equation of an
ellipse with foci at (±3, 0) and vertices at (±5, 0).
Sketch the graph.
Solution:
Given: F(±3, 0) and V(±5, 0)
The principal axis is the x-axis, where a = 5 and
c = 3. To solve for b, we use the equation,
b2 = a2 – c2
= 52 – 3 2 Hence, the intercepts
= 25 – 9 are at B(0, ±4).
= √16 = 4
Example 1.6
Find the standard form of the equation of an
ellipse with foci at (±3, 0) and vertices at (±5, 0).
Sketch the graph.
y
Solution: B1
4
The equation of the
ellipse is then,
-5 -3 3 5
x2 + y2 = 1 x
(5)2 (4)2 V2 F2 F1 V1
x2 + y2 = 1
25 16 B2 -4
In the example, if we multiply the answer with

the LCD (25 x 16 = 400), we obtain the equation,
16x2 + 25x2 = 400
What do you notice about this equation? We
observe the following:
1. The equation is quadratic in both x and y.
2. The coefficients of x2 and y2 are not equal and
have the same sign.
3. There is no x-term nor y-term.
We now have a general form of the equation

of the ellipse with center at the origin:
Ax2 + By2 + E = 0
where A ≠ B and A and B have the same sign.
Thus, the graphs of the equations 4x2 + 9y2 = 36
and x2 + 25y2 = 100 are ellipses.
If we are given the equation of an ellipse in

general form, we transform it first into the
standard form in order to obtain the geometric
properties needed to sketch the graph.
Example 1.7
Solve for the length of the major and minor axes
of the ellipse defined by the equation 4x2 + 9y2 =
36. Determine the vertices, the y-intercepts, and
foci. Then sketch the ellipse in the xy-plane.
Solution:
We first transform the given equation into the
standard form by dividing it by 36.
4x2 + 9y2 = 36
36 36 36
x2 + y2 = 1
9 4
Solution:
x2 + y2 = 1
9 4
From this equation in standard form, we obtain

the values of a and b.
a2 = 9 or a = 3 and b2 = 4 or b = 2
From the equation, c2 = a2 – b2,

c2 = 9 – 4 = 5 and c = √5 = 2.24
Solution:
We now compute for the values of the parts of
the ellipse.
1. Length of major axis = 2a = 2(3) = 6

2. Length of minor axis = 2b = 2(2) = 4
3. The vertices are at V1(3, 0) and V2(-3, 0)
4. The y-intercepts are at B1(0, 2) and B2(0, -2)
5. The foci are at F1(√5, 0) and F2(-√5, 0)
The points are plotted in the xy-plane and joined

by a smooth curve.
y
4x2 + 9y2 = 36
B1
x
V2 F2 F1 V1
B2
When the Principal
Axis is the y-axis
When the Principal Axis is the y-axis
In this second case, the constant sum of the

distance from any point on the ellipse to the two
foci is 2b. The principal axis is the y-axis so both
the foci and the vertices are on the y-axis. The
foci are at F1(0, c) and F2(0, -c). The vertices are
at V1(0, b) and V2(0, -b). The conjugate axis is
now the x-axis and the intercepts are at
A1(a, 0) and A2(-a, 0).
y
V1(0, b)
P(x, y) F1(0, c)
x
A1(-a, 0) A1(a, 0)
F2(0, -c)
V2(0, -b)
An ellipse with center at (0, 0) and principal axis at the y-axis

This time the major axis, V1V2, has length 2b,

while the minor axis, A1A2, has length of 2a.
Since the constant sum is greater than the
distance between two foci, b > c and b > a. In
fact,
b2 = a 2 + c 2
Example 1.8
An ellipse has its foci at (0, ±√12) and vertices at
(0, ±4). Sketch the graph and determine its
equation in standard form.
Solution:
Given: F(0, ±√12) and V=(0, ±4), so c=√12 and
b=4. The principal axis is the y-axis and,
a2 = b 2 – c 2
= 42 – (√12)2
= 16 – 12
a = √4 = 2
Hence, the intercepts are (2, 0).
y
a = 2 and b = 4, the V1
equation of the F1
ellipse is then
x2 + y 2 = 1 x
22 4 2
x2 + y 2 = 1
4 16 F2
V2
Eccentricity of the
Ellipse
Eccentricity of the Ellipse
The various shapes of the ellipse are

determined by the ratio of the center-to-focus
distance c to the center-to-vertex distance a. This
ratio is called the eccentricity of the ellipse.
When the principal axis is at the x-axis, the
center-to-vertex distance is a, thus the
eccentricity is the ratio
e=c
a
We determined the value of c,

c = √a2 – b2 where a > b
Suppose we let a be a fixed number and
analyze the different values of e as we look at the
various shapes of the ellipse.
y y y
c=0 e=0 x c=4a/5 e=4/5 x c=a e=1 x

F 1 = F2 F1 F2 F1 F2
The value of c varies from c=0 when a=b to c=a when

b=0.
y When c = 0, the ellipse

becomes a circle where the
c=0 e=0 x
two foci coincide at the
F 1 = F2 center of the circle. The
eccentricity is zero, or e =
0.
y
As the value of c
c=4a/5 e=4/5 x increases to a, the ellipse
F1 F2
flattens.
y When c = a, e = 1. This time,

b = 0 and the two foci coincide
c=a e=1 x
with the two vertices. The
F1 F2
ellipse degenerates into a line
segment on the x-axis.
When the principal axis is the y-axis, the

center-to-vertex distance is b and the
eccentricity is the ratio
e=c
b
The value of c varies
from c = 0 to c = b. Note that when c = b,
the ellipse will degenerate into a line
segment on the y-axis.
THE PARABOLA
The Parabola
A parabola is the set of all points (x, y) in a

plane whose distance from a fixed point is equal
to the distance from a fixed line. The fixed point
is called the focus while the fixed line is called
the directrix.
The Parabola
What are the geometric properties of the

parabola drawn in the xy-plane?
1. The line through the focus and perpendicular
to the directrix is the principal axis of the
parabola.
2. The point of intersection of the parabola and
its principal axis is called the vertex. The
vertex is halfway between the focus and the
directrix on the principal axis.
The Parabola
3. The line segment through the focus

connecting two points on the parabola and
perpendicular to the principal axis is called
the latus rectum. It is also called the focal
width of the parabola.
4. The parabola has no center.
5. The curve is symmetric about the principal
axis.
The Parabola
Principal
Axis
Focus
B A
P(x, y)
Vertex
Directrix
When the Principal
Axis is the x-axis
CASE 1. Parabola Opens to the Right
A
2c
P(x, y)
M(-c, y)
V F(c, 0)
Principal Axis
x = -c
-2c y2 = B4cx
A parabola with focus at (c, 0), c > 0, and vertex at the origin
The figure (in the previous slide) shows a

parabola whose focus is at F(c, 0), c > 0, and
vertex at the origin. The directrix is the line x =
-c. Let P(x, y) be a point on the parabola and PM
be the line segment perpendicular to the directrix.
Also, let AB be the latus rectum of the parabola.
Applying the distance formula between two

points,
PF = √(x – c)2 + (y – 0)2
= √(x – c)2 + y2
PM = √[x – (–c)]2 + (y – y)2

= √(x + c)2
Since P(x, y) is on the parabola then PF is

equal to PM, or
PF = PM
√(x – c)2 + y2 = √(x + c)2
Squaring both sides,
(x – c)2 + y2 = (x + c)2
Expanding the expressions and adding terms,
x2 – 2cx + c2 + y2 = x2 + 2cx + c2
x2 + c2 + y2 – x2 – c2 = 2cx + 2cx
y2 = 4cx
From the definition of latus rectum, line

segment AB is perpendicular to the principal axis
at the focus. Hence, A and B are points on the
parabola with x-coordinate c and their distance
from the directrix is |2c|. Then their distance from
the focus F is also |2c|. Therefore, the coordinates
of A and B are A(c, 2c) and B(c, -2c).
How do we sketch the graph of the parabola in

the xy-plane?
We first locate the vertex V, the focus F, and
the endpoints of the latus rectum A and B. Then
we join the points A, V, and B with a smooth
curve. Note that the curve is symmetric about the
principal axis.
CASE 2. Parabola Opens to the Left
A
2c
F(-c, 0) V
x=c
y2 = 4cx
-2c
B
In the figure (from the previous slide), the

parabola faces to the left and the focus is at
F(-c, 0), c > 0, and the vertex is at the origin.
This time the directrix is the line x = c and the
coordinates of A and B are at A(-c, 2c) and
B(-c, -2c).
The equation becomes y2 = -4cx.
When the Principal
Axis is the y-axis
CASE 1. The Parabola Opens Upward
x2 = 4cy
F(0, c)
B A
P(x, y)
-2c V(0, 0) 2c
y = -c M(x, -c)

focus of the parabola is at F(0, c), c > 0, and its
vertex is at the origin. The principal axis is the y-
axis and the directrix is at y = -c. The line
segment AB is the focal width or latus rectum.
If P(x, y) is on the parabola, then PF = PM. We

derive the equation,
x2 = 4cy
The coordinates of A and B are A(2c, c) and
B(-2c, c), respectively.
CASE 2. The Parabola Opens Downward
y=c
-2c V(0, 0) 2c
F(0, -c)
B A
x2 = -4cy

focus of the parabola is at F(0, -c), c > 0, and its
vertex is at the origin. The principal axis is the y-
axis and the directrix is at y = c. The coordinates
of A and B are A(2c, -c) and B(-2c, -c).
If P(x, y) is on the parabola, then the equation

becomes,
x2 = -4cy
Equation and
Eccentricity of a
Parabola
Equation and Eccentricity of a Parabola
From the equations obtained in the preceding

examples, we notice the following about the
equation of a parabola with center at the origin.
1. Exactly one of the variables x and y is
squared: that is, there is an x2-term or a y2-
term but not both.
2. The other variable is linear; that is, there is an
x-term or a y-term but not both.
3. There is no constant term.
The general form of the equation of a parabola

whose vertex is at the origin and principal axis is
either the x-axis or the y-axis is given by the
following:
Ax2 + Dy = 0
or
By2 + Cx = 0
The equation Ax2 + Dy = 0 is a parabola whose

principal axis is the y-axis while the equation By2
+ Cx = 0 is a parabola whose principal axis is the
x-axis.
The eccentricity of a parabola is equal to 1. It
does not change since the distance to the focus is
equal to the distance to the directrix at any point
on the parabola.
THE
HYPERBOLA
The Hyperbola
A hyperbola is the set of all points (x, y) in a

plane for which the absolute value of the
difference of the distances from two fixed points
is a constant. The two fixed points are the foci of
the hyperbola.
The Hyperbola
The line passing through the foci of the

hyperbola is called the principal axis. The point
halfway between the foci is the center of the
hyperbola. The points where the hyperbola
crosses the principal axis are the vertices of the
hyperbola.
The Hyperbola
Vertex
Focus Focus
Center Principal Axis
When the Principal
Axis is the x-axis
Suppose the foci are at F1(c, 0) and F2(-c, 0),

and the vertices are at V1(a, 0) and V2(-a, 0),
where c > 0 and a > 0.
P(x, y)
d2
d1
F2(-c, 0) V2 O V1 F1(-c, 0)
x = -a x=a
Let P(x, y) be on the hyperbola. The constant

difference is 2a. Then by definition,
| d2 – d1 | = 2a
Applying the distance formula,
d1 = √(x – c)2 + (y – 0)2
= √(x – c)2 + y2
d2 = √[x – (–c)]2 + (y – 0)2

= √(x + c)2 + y2
| √(x + c)2 + y2 – √(x – c)2 + y2 | = 2a
Transposing, squaring, and simplifying the

equation, we obtain,
x2 – y2 = 1
a2 c 2 – a2
Since 2c > 2a, then c > a and c2 – a2 > 0.

Suppose we define b2 = c2 – a2 or c2 = a2 + b2.

Then we get,
x2 – y2 = 1
a2 b2
Suppose we solve for y.

y2 = x2 – 1
b2 a2
y2 = b2(x2/a2 – 1)
y = ±b√x2/a2 – 1
Since the expression inside the radical sign

should always be non-negative, then x2/a2 – 1 ≥ 0,
x2/a2 ≥ 1 or x2 ≥ a2. Finally, |x| ≥ a, which implies
that x ≥ a or x ≤ –a. This means that no part of the
curve lies between x = –a and x = a.
Going back to the equation y = ±b√x2/a2 – 1,

we note that as x becomes a larger number, the
role of 1 becomes negligible and the equation
may be written as
y = ±b√x2/a2
y = ±b x
a
y = ±b x
a
This equation defines the equation of two lines
called the asymptotes of the hyperbola. The
curves of the hyperbola get very near but do not
cross these lines as |x| gets larger in value.
If we substitute x with –x and y with –y in the

equation
(–x2) – (–y2) = 1
a2 b2
x2 – y2 = 1
a2 b2
The equation remains the same. This implies
that the hyperbola is symmetric with respect to
the x-axis, the y-axis, and the origin.
As in the ellipse, the eccentricity e of a

hyperbola is the ratio of the center-to-focus
distance c to the center-to-vertex distance a. That
is,
e=c
a
Since c > a > 0, the eccentricity of a hyperbola is
always larger than 1.
x2 – y2 = 1
a2 b2
The equation is the standard form of the
equation of a hyperbola whose center is at the
origin and principal axis is the x-axis. Note that
this equation is similar to the standard form of the
equation of an ellipse except for the minus sign.
From the standard form of the equation of a

hyperbola, we obtain the following properties:
1. The center-to-focus distance, c = √a2 + b2 .
2. The foci at F1(c, 0) and F2(-c, 0).
3. The vertices at V1(a, 0) and V2(-a, 0).
4. The asymptotes are the lines defined by y =
bx/a and y = -bx/a.
5. The eccentricity e = c/a.
How do we construct the graph of the

hyperbola?
The graph of the hyperbola is composed of

two separate curves, one opening to the right and
the other, to the left.
These curves approach but do not cross the

asymptotes defined by y = ±bx/a. In addition, the
graph does not have any y-intercept since the
values of x are such that x ≥ a or x ≤ –a.
In graphing the hyperbola, we follow these

steps:
1. Obtain the values a, b, and c noting that
c = √ a2 + b 2 .
2. Locate the four

points, (a, b), (-a, b) (a, b)
(-a, b), (a, -b), and b
(-a, -b), in the xy-
plane as shown in
the figure. These -a a
four points are the
corners of the -b
central rectangle (-a, -b) (a, -b)
of the hyperbola.
3. Draw two lines y = -bx y = bx

that pass through a a
the diagonals of b
the central
rectangle as
shown in the -a a
figure. These
lines are the -b
asymptotes of the
hyperbola.
4. Draw two smooth x2 – y2 = 1

curves: one a2
b2
passing through b
(a, 0) facing
toward the right
and the other -a a
passing through (-
a, 0) facing -b
through to the
left.
Use the asymptotes as guides for the curves.
When the Principal
Axis is the y-axis
The figure shows a hyperbola whose center is

the origin and principal axis is the y-axis.
y = -bx y = bx
a F1 a
V1
-a a
V2
F2
The foci are at F1(0, c) and F2(0, -c). The

vertices are at V1(0, b) and V2(0, -b). The standard
form of the equation of the hyperbola is
y2 – x2 = 1
b2 a2
It is important to note that in this equation, it is

the y2-term that is positive and the x2-term that is
negative. It does not matter whether a is greater
than or less than b.
The asymptotes of this hyperbola are the lines

y = bx and y = -b x
a a
This is the same as in the first
case when the principal axis is the x-axis.
Note that one curve of the hyperbola opens

upward and the other opens downward.
There is no x-intercept because the values of y
are such that y ≥ b or y ≤ –b.
In plotting the hyperbola, the corners of the
central rectangle are at the same as in the first
case. That is, the corners are at (a, b), (a, -b), (-a,
b), (-a, -b).
General Form of the
Equation of the
Hyperbola
General Form of the Equation of the Hyperbola
What do you notice about the obtained

equations of the hyperbola?
1. The equation is quadratic in both variables x

and y.
2. The x2- and y2-terms have different signs.
3. There are no x-term or y-term.
Based on the general form of the quadratic

equation, the general form of the equation of the
hyperbola whose center is the origin and the
principal axis is either the x-axis or the y-axis is
given by the equation,
Ax2 + By2 + E = 0
where A and B are not both zero and do not have
the same sign. Thus, the equations 3x2 – 2y2 = 48
and 4y2 – 10x2 = 100 are equations of hyperbolas.
Assume that E < 0. When A is positive and B

is negative, the principal axis is the x-axis. When
A is negative and B is positive, the principal axis
is the y-axis. What do you think will happen
when E = 0 or when E is positive?
The Quadratic
Equation
The Quadratic Equation
We have seen in previous lessons that a conic

section is always represented by a quadratic
equation. When we are given a certain quadratic
equation, we should be able to determine whether
it describes a circle, an ellipse, a parabola, or a
hyperbola.
A quadratic equation is a second-degree

equation. This means that the highest power of
the terms is 2. The standard form of the quadratic
equation in two variables x and y is
Ax2 + Bxy + Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0
where A, B, C, D, E, and F are constants.

In the standard form of the quadratic equation,

at least one of the constants A, B, and C should
not be zero. What do you think will happen if
these coefficients are all zero? We get the
equation
Dx + Ey + F = 0
which is a linear equation.

Example 1.9
Determine the values of the constants A, B, C, D,
E, and F in the following equations.
a. 2x2 + 8x = 3y2 + 5y – 9
b. x2 = 4 + y 2
c. xy = 7
d. 5y2 = 3x
Solution:
To obtain the values of A, B, C, D, E, and F,
we first transform the equations into the standard
form, where all the terms are on one side and
equated to zero.
a. 2x2 + 8x = 3y2 + 5y – 9
Standard form: 2x2 – 3y2 + 8x – 5y + 9 = 0
and we have the following values: A = 2, B =
0, C = -3, D = 8, E = -5, and F = 9.
Solution:
b. x2 = 4 + y2
Standard form: x2 – y2 – 4 = 0
and we obtain the following: A = 1, B = 0,
C = -1, D = 0, E = 0, and F = -4.
c. xy = 7
Standard form: xy – 7 = 0
and we get tht following: A = 0, B = 1, C = 0,
D = 0, E = 0, and F = -7.
Solution:
d. 5y2 = 3x
Standard form: 5y2 – 3x = 0
and we obtain the following: A = 0, B = 0,
C = 5, D = -3, E = 0, and F = 0.
Let us now discuss the different forms of the

quadratic equation with their corresponding conic
sections.
CASE 1: When an equation in x and y is

quadratic in one variable and linear in the other;
there is no xy-term.
This is an equation where either A = 0 (when y is

squared) or C = 0 (when x is squared). Also, B =
0. The graph of this equation is a parabola.

quadratic in both variables and the coefficients of
the quadratic terms are equal; there is no xy-term.
In this case, both A and C are not zero. In fact,

they are equal. Also, B = 0. The graph of this
equation is a circle.

quadratic in both variables, the coefficients of
the quadratic terms are not equal but have the
same sign; there is no xy-term.
In this case, both A and C are not zero. A is not

equal to C but they have the same sign. Also, B =
0. The graph of this equation is an ellipse.

quadratic in both variables, the quadratic terms
do not have the same sign; there is no xy-term.
In this case A and C do not have the same sign

and B = 0. This equation describes a hyperbola.
CASE 5: When an equation in x and y contains

the xy-term equated to a constant.
This is a special case. The graph of this equation

is a hyperbola with the origin as the point of
symmetry.
Important Terms
Center of the conic Hyperbola
Central rectangle Latus rectum
Circle Major axis of an ellipse
Conic section Minor axis of an ellipse
Conjugate axis Nappe
Degenerate conic Parabola
Directrix Principal Axis
Eccentricity of a conic Standard form of a conic
Ellipse equation
Focus Vertex
Summary
 The conic is the graph of a quadratic equation.
 The conic represented by a quadratic equation

may be a circle, an ellipse, a parabola, or a
hyperbola.
 A circle is the set of all points (x, y) in the

plane whose distance from a fixed point is a
constant.
Summary
 An ellipse is the set of all points (x, y) in a

plane whose distances from the two fixed
points in the plane give a constant sum.
 A parabola is the set of all points (x, y) in a

plane whose distance from a fixed point (the
focus) is equal to the distance from a fixed line
(the directrix).
Summary
 A hyperbola is the set of all points (x, y) in a

plane for which the absolute value of the
difference of the distances from two fixed
points is a constant. The two fixed points are
the foci of the hyperbola.
 The standard form of the equation of a circle

whose center is at the origin of the xy-plane
and the radius r is the equation x2 + y2 = r2.
Summary
 The standard form of the equation of an ellipse

whose center is at the origin,
x2 + y2 = 1
a2 b2
where a and b are not zero and a ≠ b. If a = b,
then the equation describes a circle. When a >
b, the principal axis is the x-axis. When a < b.
the y-axis is the principal axis.
Summary
 The standard form of the equation of a

parabola with principal axis on the x-axis is y2
= ax. The parabola opens to the right of the y-
axis when a > 0, and opens to the left when
a < 0. If the equation is in the form of x2 = by,
then the principal axis is the y-axis. The
parabola opens upward when b > 0, and
downward when b < 0.
Summary

hyperbola is
x2 – y2 = 1
a2 b2
when the center is at the origin and the
principal axis is the x-axis.

hyperbola with center at the origin and
principal axis is the y-axis is
y2 – x2 = 1
b2 a2
EXERCISES
Exercises
Exercise 1
Find the equation of the circle satisfying the

given properties. Sketch the graph.
1. Center at the origin, radius is 6.

2. Center at the origin,
circle passes through (4, 1)
3. Center at (1, 2), radius is 4.
4. Center at (6, 1), x-intercept is 2.
5. Center at (4, -3), y-intercept is 1.
Exercises
Determine whether the given point is on the

circle.
6. P(0, 1) on x2 + y2 = 1
7. P(-2, 3) on 2x2 + 2y2 = 26
8. P(2, 2) on x2 + y2 = 16
9. P(-1, 1) on (x – 5)2 + (y – 3)2 = 40
10. P(5, 0) on (x + 3)2 + (y – 1)2 = 65
Exercises
Determine center and radius of the circle and

sketch the graph.
11. x2 + y2 – 81 = 0
12. 3x2 + 3y2 = 48
13. (x – 1)2 + (y – 2)2 = 9
14. (x – 3)2 + (y + 1)2 + 16 = 0
15. x2 + (y + 5)2 = 25
Exercises
Exercise 2
Express the following equations of ellipse in
standard form. Identify the principal axis and
determine the lengths of the major and minor
axes and the coordinates of the vertices,
intercepts, and foci. Then, sketch the graph.
1. x2 + 4y2 = 4
2. 4x2 + 25y2 = 100
3. 25x2 + 36y2 = 900
4. 49x2 + y2 = 49
5. 36x2 + 16y2 = 576
Exercises
Find the equation of each ellipse with center

at the origin and with the following
geometric conditions.
6. Foci at (±2, 0) and vertices at (±4, 0)

7. Foci at (0, ±3) and vertices at (0, ±4)
8. Minor axis of length 4 and vertices (0, ±5)
9. Major axis of length 10 and foci at (±4, 0)
10. One vertex is at (6, 0) and foci at (±5, 0)
Exercises
Determine the eccentricity of each of the

following equations of ellipse.
11. 11x2 + 36y2 = 396

12. 9x2 + 8y2 = 72
13. 3x2 + 4y2 = 48
14. 99x2 + 100y2 = 9900
15. 17x2 + 81y2 = 1377
Exercises
Exercise 3
Find the focus and equation of the directrix,

then sketch the parabola.
1. x2 = 2y
2. x2 = -12y
3. y2 = 16x
4. y2 = -4x
5. x2 = y
Exercises
From the given properties, derive the

equation for each parabola.
6. F(-4, 0), directrix: x = 4

7. F(0, -1), directrix: y = 1
8. F(2, 0), directrix: x = -2
9. F(0, -1/2), directrix: y = 1/2
10. The directrix is parallel to the x-axis, the
vertex is at the origin, and the parabola
passes through (3, 1).
Exercises
Exercise 4
For each equation, determine the: (a)center-to-
focus distance, (b)foci, (c)vertices, and
(d)asymptotes of the hyperbola. Sketch the
graph of the equation.
1. x2/25 – y2/9 = 1
2. x2/4 – y2/16 = 1
3. y2/16 – x2/9 = 1
4. x2 – y2 = 25
5. 25x2 – 36y2 = 100
Exercises
Exercise 5
What kind of graph does each equation

describe?
1. 2x2 + y2 = 4
2. 3x2 – y2 = 10
3. 2y2 + 9x2 = 36
4. x = 5y2 – 8
5. –x2 – y2 + 6y – 20 = 0

Analytic Geometry IIIA

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Analytic Geometry IIIA

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ANALYTIC

This chapter is devoted to the geometric

The graphs of quadratic equations are curves

Properties of these curves were already known

2. Recognize whether an algebraic equation

3. Describe the properties of a circle, an ellipse, a

4. Draw the graphs of equations of the four conics.

5. Analyze the characteristics of the conics by

6. Deduce the equation of a particular conic, given the

7. Solve problems involving a circle, an ellipse, a

The Greeks defined the conics in terms of the

If the plane cuts one

If the plane cuts one

If the plane cuts one

Finally, if the plane

When the cutting plane crosses the vertex, the

If the cutting plane

If the plane cuts

If the cutting plane

In the coordinate plane, the conics can be

Ax2 + By2 + Cxy + Dx + Ey + F = 0

where A and B are not both zero.

In this chapter, we shall discuss the different

For convenience, we will assume that C = 0

For each type of conics, two forms of

a. The standard form where geometric properties

b. The general form.

The most common conic found in nature is the

A circle is the set of all points (x, y) in the

Let P(x, y) be a point

Then using the y

Applying the equation

From the given examples, we notice the

From these properties, we obtain the general

Suppose that we are given the equation of a

We transform this equation into the standard

Another way to explain the equation is by

In general, we have three cases of the general

Case 1. When –E > 0, we have a circle whose

Case 2. When E = 0, we have a circle of zero

Case 3. When –E < 0, there is no circle at all in the

Next to the circle, the ellipse is the most

An ellipse is the set of all points (x, y) in a

Before discussing any further, let us define

1. Halfway between the two foci is the center of

2. The points where the curve crosses the

Before discussing any further, let us define

3. The line perpendicular to the principal axis at

4. The points where the curve crosses the

These parts are shown in the figure.

The standard form of the equation of the

From this equation, we obtain the properties

Case 1. When the principal axis is the x-axis.

In this case, the constant sum of the distances

An ellipse with center at (0, 0) and principal axis at the x-axis

The line segment that joins the vertices is

Since the constant sum is greater than the

How do we construct the graph of the ellipse

The principal axis is on the x-axis. We need to

If we substitute x with –x and y with –y, what

In the example, if we multiply the answer with

We now have a general form of the equation

If we are given the equation of an ellipse in

From this equation in standard form, we obtain