Currents of Thought Underlying

Positive Psychology in SLA:

The Continuing Influence of
Gardner’s Work
Peter D. MacIntyre, Tammy Gregersen, Jean-Marc Dewaele

AAAL 2018 CHICAGO SYMPOSIUM,

CONTEMPORARY L2 MOTIVATION AT 60:
EXTENDING THE LEGACY OF ROBERT C. GARDNER
Introduction
Gardner’s work continues to exert an influence on applied linguistics
◦ It was never just about integrative vs instrumental motives
◦ Gardner’s socio-educational model was context sensitive, social-psychological approach to
dealing with the social, political, and psychological dimensions of language learning.

We review 3 studies that link to currents of thought in research, focus on

studies connected to positive psychology in SLA
1. Attitudes and emotions
2. Implications for teacher strengths
3. Social capital

Conclusion
A bit of background
GARDNER’S MODEL, POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
The socio-educational model (Gardner, 2010)

Ability

Educational Formal Linguistic

Setting Contexts Outcomes
Affective Factors,
Cultural Motivation Informal Non-Linguistic
Beliefs Contexts Outcomes

Attitudes toward
Learning Situation
Motivation

Integrativeness

Integrative Motivation
Where we come in (today’s topics),
connection to Positive Psychology
Teacher Mentoring
Ability

Educational Formal Linguistic

Setting Contexts Outcomes
Affective
Cultural Factors Informal Non-Linguistic
Beliefs Contexts Outcomes

Emotions Learners’ Social Capital

Defining Positive Psychology
“Scientific study
of what goes
right in life”
(Peterson, 2006)
 Why Positive Psychology? (originated
2000)

1. To increase well-being and happiness

◦ flourishing lives well-lived
2. To balance the research agenda
◦ negative issues dominate Psychology:
Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi
study disorders & dysfunction
◦ repair mental illness, disease-model
3. To avoid “quack” cures
- unsubstantiated, self-help advice
Martin Seligman
 Example Topics in Positive Psychology
Happiness Resilience
Flow Grit
Creativity Self-efficacy
Well-being Hope
Self-esteem Optimism
Humor Empathy
Compassion Meaning
Forgiveness Enjoyment
Gratitude Strengths
Love
Positive Psychology
in SLA
On the Trail of PosPsy in SLA
(MacIntyre & Mercer, 2014)

Five historical trends that support PP in SLA:

1. Good language learner studies
2. Humanistic language teaching
3. Krashen’s Affective Filter
4. The role of ‘the self’
5. Gardner’s emphasis on positive
attitudes & motivation
Can we expand Gardner’s ideas,
based on work in Positive Psychology?
Three studies, inspired by positive psychology in SLA:

1. Do attitudes implicate positive emotions?

◦ Several recent papers are calling for better understanding the role of emotions in SLA, how
do emotions connect to Gardner’s concepts?

2. How do learners ‘broaden and build’ resources with language

◦ Role of language in growing and investing social capital

3. Developing signature character strengths for teachers via mentors

◦ Teachers are at risk for burnout; would sage advise on exercising personal strengths help new
teachers to cope better?
Study 1:
The AMTB and PANAS
M a c I n t y r e , P. D . , D e w a e l e , J . - M . , M a c m i l l a n , N . & C h e n g c h e n L i ( I n P r e s s ) . T h e
E m o t i o n a l U n d e r p i n n i n g s O f G a r d n e r ’s A t t i t u d e s A n d M o t i v a t i o n Te s t B a t t e r y. I n
A . A l - h o o r i e & P. D . M a c I n t y r e ( E d s ) , C o n t e m p o r a r y L 2 M o t i v a t i o n A t 6 0 :
E x t e n d i n g T h e L e g a c y O f R o b e r t C . G a r d n e r. B r i s t o l : M u l t i l i n g u a l M a t t e r s .
Attitudinal Supports for Motivation in SE Model
Attitudes toward the learning situation
◦ Attitudes toward the Teacher
◦ Attitudes toward the Course

Motivation
◦ Attitudes toward learning L2
◦ Desire to learn
◦ Intensity of effort Implicate
Emotions
Integrativeness
◦ Attitudes toward L2 speakers
◦ Integrative orientation (reasons for learning)
◦ Interest in foreign languages
Emotion
Emotions can be highly motivating
◦ stronger emotions provide motivation

Emotions might be the most basic of all motives

Emotions can interfere with “higher level motives” (e.g., integrative,
mastery, growth)
Increasing research interest in language-related emotions
◦ Language anxiety has been widely studied;
◦ Positive emotions are emerging as relevant factors
 Do emotions correlate with integrative
motivation?
Used Gardner’s Attitude and Motivation Test Battery (International Edition) to measure Integrative
Motivation
Used the Positive and Negative Affect Scale to measure 20 emotions, 10 positive and 10 negative
Two samples
◦ A homogeneous sample of Chinese students
◦ A heterogeneous sample of learners recruited on the web
 Gardner’s AMTB PANAS- Positive PANAS - Negative

Interest in Foreign Languages Interested Distressed

Parental encouragement Excited Upset

Motivational Intensity Strong Guilty
Desire to Learn

Measures
Enthusiastic Scared
Attitudes toward Learning the FL
Proud Nervous
Attitudes toward FL Speakers
Alert Hostile
Integrative Orientation
Inspired Irritable
Instrumental Orientation
Determined Ashamed
FL Course Evaluation
Attentive Jittery
Evaluation of FL Teacher

FL Use Anxiety Active Afraid

FL Classroom Anxiety
Method
Chinese sample
• N = 158 (93 females, 65 males)
• Mage = 23 (SD = 4)
• All university students

Web sample
• N = 303 (236 females, 64 males, 3 nondisclosed)
• Mage = 26 (SD=9)
• University students = 278, secondary school = 25
Results
Things to notice
1. Gardner’s concepts correlate better with Positive emotions than
with negative emotions.
2. The web sample shows stronger correlations than the Chinese
sample
◦ Except, the correlations involving Attitudes toward the Learning Situation
are almost equal.

3. Language anxiety correlates stronger with positive emotion (in the

Chinese sample), but with negative emotions in the web sample.
Overall, AMTB scores correlate well with positive emotions in both
samples.

Correlations with negative emotions are somewhat weaker

Positive
*
.52* Emotions
*
.63*
AMTB
-.28
**
-.46*
*
Negative
Emotions

• Study 1 (Chinese)
• Study 2 (Web)
** p<.01
Integrativeness correlates well with positive emotions in both samples.

However, correlations with negative emotions are much weaker or n.s.

*
Positive
.34* Emotions
*
.48*
Integrativeness
-.13
-.16 Negative
**
Emotions

• Study 1 (Chinese)
• Study 2 (Web)
** p<.01
Motivation correlates well with both positive and negative
emotions in both samples; correlations with negative
emotions are somewhat weaker

Positive
.43**
* Emotions
.59*
Motivation
-.25
* *
-.36
**
Negative
Emotions

• Study 1 (Chinese)
• Study 2 (Web)
** p<.01
Both samples produced similar correlations involving ALS;
again, correlation with negative emotions are weaker

Positive
.50**
*
Emotions
.51*
Attitudes toward
Learning Situation -.29
**
-.29
**
Negative
Emotions

• Study 1 (Chinese)
• Study 2 (Web)
** p<.01
Finally, language anxiety is more strongly connected to
negative emotions in the web sample, but positive
emotions in the Chinese sample

Positive
. 4 3 **
- Emotions
**
-.30
Anxiety
.31*
*
.59
** Negative
Emotions

• Study 1 (Chinese)
• Study 2 (Web)
** p<.01
The AMTB clearly and consistently
implicates emotions
1. The AMTB clearly and consistent implicates emotions
- positive emotions more so than negative emotions.
2. The web sample shows stronger correlations than Chinese sample
- Except, the correlations involving Attitudes toward the Learning Situation
are almost equal.

3. Emotions show differences across cultures

- Language anxiety correlates differently across samples.
Strengths Study
From Strength to Strength

Small sample,
individual approach

(n = 8)

Gregersen &
MacIntyre (2018) Gregersen, T. & MacIntyre, P. D. (2018). Signature strengths as a gateway to
mentoring: Facilitating emergent teachers’ transition into language teaching. In S.
Mercer & A. Kostaulas (Eds.), Language Teacher Psychology (pp 264-290). Bristol:
Multilingual Matters.
Character Strengths
Online VIA inventory of 6 virtues and 24 strengths including:
◦ appreciating beauty, bravery, creativity, curiosity, fairness, gratitude, humour,
kindness, learning, love, perspective, spirituality, teamwork, and zest
(Peterson & Seligman, 2004)

Signature Strengths have desirable properties:

◦ Authenticity, excitement, intrinsic motivation, rapid learning, feeling invigoration
(not exhaustion)

Engaging strengths in new ways leads to positive outcomes

◦ Generally viewed as better than ‘working on your weakness’
Mentoring: A strengths approach

Basic Study Design

We matched 5 new teachers with 3 experienced teachers who have similar
signature strengths
Experienced teachers gave advice on using strengths in teaching
New teachers tried the advice in classrooms and wrote about their experience
 Types of advice offered by mentors
Freq. Type of Advice
29 Specific Classroom Activities
17 Relationship Formation and Maintenance
17 Creating a Positive Classroom/Course Atmosphere
12 Advice for Self-Care
10 Learn about Yourself
9 Awareness of Issues (e.g. cultural differences)
Specific Examples
‘Play games in class that make the students laugh at themselves and
each other’ (Humour),
‘Try to help your students if they need it in their personal lives if you
think it's appropriate’ (Kindness).
‘Allow, encourage, and build in time for students to display beauty in
their work’ (Beauty).
‘When you’re feeling down, remember your bigger picture. Keep a
quote or piece of scripture nearby that reminds you of why you’re
doing what you’re doing’ (Spirituality).
‘Remind students that the world is very large and there are so many
beliefs and opinions!!’ (Prudence).
Positive reactions by novice teachers
(SA, A)
(4, 1) Improved satisfaction for relationships with students
(3, 2) Strengthened my sense of well-being in my classroom
(3, 2) Enhanced confidence in my abilities as a teacher
(2, 3) Increased my resilience and buffered me from weaknesses I
feel as a new teacher
(1, 4) Improved my coping skills… stresses of the classroom
Social Capital
Study Adding Positive Psychology
Interventions to an existing
conversation program

Small sample,
individual approach

(n = 8)

Gregersen &
MacIntyre Gregersen, T. & MacIntyre, P. D. (2016). Positive Psychology Exercises Build Social
Capital for Language Learners: Preliminary Evidence. In T. Gregersen, P. D, MacIntyre
2016 & S. Mercer (Eds.), Positive Psychology in SLA. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Positive Social Capital
Conversation Partners Program
◦ Native speakers talk one-on-one with peer learners (young adults)

Add 6 positive psychology exercises to the program

◦ Next slide

Meet once a week for 12 weeks

◦ ABAB design (A = regular session, B = a pos. psych. ex.)

Measure positive reactions throughout & essay at the end

 Social Capital
“…networks that have the potential to provide
either material or nonmaterial resources
(including achieving physical and mental health,
a sense of personal safety, and feeling integrated into
a community and valued by others in that community).”
(Nawyn, Gjokaj, Agbényiga, and Grace, 2012)

Original: “the aggregate of the actual or

potential resources which are linked to
possession of a durable network of more or
less institutionalized relationships of mutual
acquaintance or recognition”
(Bourdieu, 1985: 248)
Developing social capital within the
Conversation Partners Program

Structured meetings between

learners and speakers (English)

Pairs complete PosPsy activities

together

Activities become the focus of

action and context for learning
Interventions

Altruism Gratitude Music

Exercise Laughter Pet Therapy

 Increases in self-ratings for each participant per
PPE
 
PPE
Learner Music Gratitude Altruism Pet Exercise Laughter

Nashi +2.0 +2.0 +1.0 +2.0 +3.0 +2.0

Miki +4.0 +3.0 +2.5 +3.0 +3.3 +4.0
Tina +1.0 +1.0 0 0 +2.0 +2.0
Anna +2.0 +1.0 +2.0 +3.0 +2.0 +2.0
Bea +0.5 +1.0 +0.5 +1.0 +1.0 +1.0

Mean +1.9 +1.6 +1.2 +1.8 +2.2 +2.2

Summary of Results
Music, exercise, laughter, pets, gratitude
and altruism PPEs all produced gains in
positive emotion.

Every PPE increased participants’ pre-

NG UAGE
LA and post-PPE self-rankings from an
average of 1.2 to 2.2 points out of 10.

Positive emotion was carried through

the instructional portion of the sessions.
 Social Capital in action…
EXCERPT FROM ANNA’S FINAL EXCERPT FROM ANNA’S
INTERVIEW PARTNER’S RESEARCH NOTES

I don’t think my ‘talking’ has improved so Because it was our last time
much but I am more comfortable using meeting, we both had gotten each
English more often than I was before. other a gift and exchanged them.
Because we were friends it made me We talked about the semester and
more comfortable to use English and not about all things that had happened
worry about being incorrect. I also was and it was literally just a moment
challenged when I would hang out with of friendship – laughing, talking,
you and your friends because you all talk
drinking hot chocolate and
so fast and I had to concentrate to follow
the things you were saying. It was scary at
reminiscing. It was the perfect way
first but then I like it so much because it to end our time together.
was very good practice. You and your
friends are so kind too because you help
me understand if I am confused and also
it is fun to watch how American girls talk
to each other.
Two Conclusions by Participants
1. Modifying the Exercises to the learner’s
preferences was integral to their efficacy.
2. The effects of the exercises were secondary to
the effects of the relationships that were built.
⬇
Social Capital
Conclusion
“…in the process of learning a
second language, motivation is
seen to develop through the
student’s reaction to the
experience in the classroom and
to the ability to emotionally
incorporate material foreign to
his/her own culture, as reflected
in integrativeness”
R.C. Gardner (2010, p. 26)
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