Dcam PT 66 Training Module 15.21 Eng Monitoring and Ground Opn

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology
GAS TURBINE ENGINE

MODULE 15.21
ENGINE MONITORING AND
GROUND OPERATION
Issue: 01 Module 15.21.1 1

Revision: 00
15.21 ENGINE MONITORING AND GROUND

OPERATION
15.21.1 Procedures for starting and ground run up
15.21.2. Interpretation of engine power output and
parameters
15.21.3 Trend (including oil analysis, vibration and borescope)
monitoring
15.21.4 Inspection -inspection of engine and components to
criteria, tolerances and data specified by engine
manufacturer/Foreign Object Damage
15.21.5 Maintenance - Compressor washing/cleaning
Issue: 01 Module 15.21.1 Page No: 2

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ENGINE STARTING AND

GROUND RUN UP

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ENGINE STARTING AND GROUND RUN UP

1. Engine Starting and Ground Run Up
Reason for conducting an engine run include:
1. To duplicate a flight crew-reported discrepancy for
troubleshooting
2. To perform a basic engine or engine system checkout
following maintenance
3. To move an aircraft from one maintenance location to
another
4. To taxi-check an aircraft system

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ENGINE STARTING AND GROUND RUN UP – CON’D

1. ENGINE STARTING - GENERAL
- Must familiar with the procedure for starting and running a gas
turbine engine
- Operation must be conducted in an area specifically designated
for the purpose to reduce or injury to personnel, hangar and
other equipment – in front of blast shield
- Prepare engine run by removing the engine inlet and exhaust
covers, the check for proper oil levels, adequate fuel and fluid
leaks that could be fire hazard.
- To prevent FOD, remove loose objects from the ramp around
the engine and remove any tools or other loose objects from the
turbine inlet prior to start. Check the condition of the
compressor and turbine visually, verifying freedom of motion
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1. ENGINE STARTING – GENERAL – CON’D
- Upon entering the cockpit, verify that the master switch is
“off”, the landing gear handle is in the “ down” position (fig.1),
and the generator switches are “off”
- If using a ground power unit for starting, verify that the voltage
being supply to the a/c is correct
- When condition are safe for engine start, flip the master switch
and battery or external power switches on and switch on the
fuel boost pumps
- Operation of the starter, ignition and fuel control is usually
based on N1 or N2 indications and time, therefore you must
observe the engine instrument and elapsed time during engine
start.

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- Watch the EGT indicator to confirm a light-off. A sharp rise in

EGT indicates a start has begun
- Hot start – excessively rich fuel/ air mixture, the exhaust gas
temperature will exceed the allowable limit ( as specified in the
Maintenance Manual ) and the engine will be damage
- To minimize- the exhaust temperature, turbine inlet
temperature or interstage turbine temperature gauge must be
monitored during start
- Hung start – starter cuts out too soon or when the starting
power source fails to provide enough energy to rotate the engine
to a sufficient speed.
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- A hung start occurs when engine start is normal and exhaust gas
temperature is within limit, but the engine fails to accelerate or
reach idle rpm.
- Engine must be shutdown and trouble shoot cause for hung start
before another start attempt is made
- Hot start- engine overheat above limit during starting or
starting EGT above limit

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Fig.1 Cockpit – Main Landing Gear Down

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2. ENGINE FIRE
- In the event that an engine fire starts or the fire warning light
illuminates during the starting cycle, cut off the fuel flow to
the engine and continue motoring the engine with the starter
- If fire persists, small amount of CO2 can be discharged into
the inlet duct while engine being motored
- Avoid discharging excessive amounts of CO2 directly into a hot
engine because the cooling effect can shrink the turbine
housing around the turbine blades causing engine disintegration

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3. POWER CHECK
- If an engine idles properly and engine parameters appear to be
normal, verify that the engine is capable of producing takeoff
thrust.
- Before doing this (fig.2), calculate EPR or discharge pressure
value represent takeoff thrust for the prevailing atmospheric
condition
- Once the takeoff EPR is known, adjust the throttle to obtain
takeoff power.
- While advancing the power lever to the computed EPR,
carefully observe the EGT, tachometer ,fuel flow and oil
pressure readings to avoid exceeding maximum limits
- To make precise thrust measurements using a takeoff thrust
setting curve, an a/c must be stationary and engine must be
stabilize
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Fig.2 Power Check

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4. ENGINE SHUTDOWN
- Before a gas turbine engine is shutdown, the engine is run at

idle for 60 seconds or more.
- This permits component temperatures to stabilize and oil
system scavenging to occur.
- After the recommended time period, move the power lever to
the “cut off” or “fuel shut off” position
- Once the engine quits, move the fuel boost, fuel valve,
generator, battery, external power and master switches to
their off position

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5. COLD WEATHER OPERATIONS
- Poses special challenges and requires you to follow special

procedures
- For example, when starting a cold soaked engine , it is best to
use a ground power supply so an adequate rotational speed can
be obtained.
- A typical turbojet requires an N2 speed of at least 10 percent
for a successful light. Sometimes ice build-up may interfere
with fan rotation

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5. COLD WEATHER OPERATIONS – CON’D
- EGT indication may be much lower than during warm weather

starts
- Oil viscosity increases as temperature decreases. Oil pressure
indications may run full scale and possible ‘filter blocked’
warning light could illuminate until oil warms up

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1. Engine Starting and Ground Run Up – con’d
NOTE:
Each particular aircraft will have a specific engine ground run
checklist provided by the manufacturer. The general
procedures for operating a turbine engine ( Turbofan and
turbojet ) include, but are not limited to, the following items
specified in the next paragraphs.

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1. Engine starting and Ground Run Up

a. Safety Precautions
- The operator must be thoroughly familiar with the flight
line safety precautions which includes the use of ear defenders,
awareness of inlet and exhaust area hazards for protection of
both personnel and equipment
- The operator has the knowledge of adverse weather
restrictions which, if neglected, could result in poor engine
performance or possible engine damage.
- The operator has complete familiarity with the manufacturer’s
checklist, and maintenance manuals is a must for safe and
accurate performance testing.
- Operation must be conducted in an area specifically designated
for the purpose to reduce or injury to personnel, hangar and
other equipment – in front of blast shield
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1. Engine Ground Run Up – con’d
Normal Operating Procedure ( Turbofan and Turbojet )
a. Prior to engine operation:
- remove inlet and exhaust covers, clear inlet and exhaust
areas of personnel and equipment, and clear the ramp for
debris
- perform a walk-around inspection of the aircraft to ensure
complete security of necessary aircraft and engine systems
- check the condition of the compressor and turbine visually,
verifying freedom of motion
- ensure servicing of fuel and oil is adequate for the run-up
- check for fluid leaks that could be fire hazard.
- connect Ground Power Unit to aircraft if required.
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Normal Operating Procedure (Turbofan and Turbojet) – con’d
b. When first entering the cockpit (aircraft) ensure that:
1. Engine Master Switch – OFF
2. Landing Gear Handle position – WHEELS DOWN
3. Seat and Brake Pedals – ADJUSTED
4. Generator switches – OFF
5. Power Lever – OFF, or Fuel Shutoff Lever – OFF
6. Starter and Ignition – OFF
7. Aircraft systems – SAFE FOR ENGINE OPERATION

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c. To Start engine:
1. Master Switch – ON
2. Select Battery or External Power – ON
3. Fuel Valves – ON ( Aircraft system )
4. Fuel Boost – ON ( Aircraft system )
5. Starter – ON
6. Ignition – ON (usually between 5 and 10% rpm)
7. Power Lever – OPEN ( to approx. idle position ) or Fuel Shutoff
Lever – OPEN ( allow 10 to 20 seconds to light off. If no light off takes
place, abort start )
8. Ignition and Starter – OFF automatically ( below idle rpm )
9. Generator – Normally on at this time

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d. Instrument Checks on Start cycle:
1. Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT) – WITHIN LIMITS
(Starting peak and stabilized )
2. Engine Oil Pressure – WITHIN LIMITS
3. Compressor Speed – for Dual compressor engines, ensure a
positive N1 indication by 20% N2 speed
e. Instrument Checks Stabilized at Idle:
1. Percent RPM ( generally between 40 – 60% )
2. EGT, Fuel Flow, Fuel Manifold Pressure, Oil Temperature,
Oil Pressure, Fuel Temperature, Vibration Amplitude (large
acft)
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f. Typical High Power Checks:
1. Engine Trim Check ( EPR, Fan speed or engine torque )
2. Acceleration and Deceleration time checks
3. Compressor Bleed Valve and Variable Vane Schedule checks
g. Taxi Procedure:
1. Release brakes and move power lever forward as required
for RPM, thrust, and ground speed
Note: Communication with the airport control tower is required
before taxing

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h. Normal Shutdown Procedure:
1. Operate engine at prescribed speed for recommended time
interval, usually idle for 20-30 seconds. This is done to stabilize
component temperatures, to prevent engine distortion, to
prevent coking of oil on extremely hot surfaces, and to scavenge
the oil properly back to the oil tank.
2. Power Lever or Fuel Shutoff Lever – OFF
3. Fuel Boost – OFF
4. Fuel Valves – OFF
5. Generator, Battery, External Power – OFF
6. Master Switch - OFF
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ENGINE POWER OUTPUT

AND PARAMETERS

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ENGINE POWER OUTPUT AND PARAMETERS
1. ENGINE POWER OUTPUT ( PERFORMANCE )

- Turbine engine performance is based on standards established
by the society of automotive engineers (SAE)
- These standards are known as engine power ratings and listed
on engine Type Certificate data sheet
- Engine power rating are expressed in values of EPR, percent N1
or torque
- Power ratings include takeoff power, maximum continuous
power, max cruise power, cruise power, max climb power,
ground idle (GI) and flight idle (FI)
- A take off power rating represents the amount of power an a/c
engine is allowed to produce for takeoff
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ENGINE POWER OUTPUT AND PARAMETERS – CON’D
1. ENGINE POWER OUTPUT ( PERFORMANCE ) – CON’D

- Usually takeoff power is time-limited and caution must be
exercised
- If time limits exceeded, turbine section could overheat
- Maximum continuous power is a power level used at the
discretion of the pilot for unusual or emergency situations
- Depending on the engine model, max continuous power may be
synonymous with maximum cruise power.
- Using this selection result in increased fuel burn which shorten
the flight range

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- A cruise power rating is used to extend an a/c’s range by
providing the best fuel economy during flight, there is no time
limit on this power setting
- An engine maximum climb power rating is used for normal climb
to cruise altitude.
- This power rating is higher than a cruise power rating and is not
subject to time limitations
- Ground idle is the lowest allowable engine speed for ground
operation

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- A typical ground idle rating is between 50 percent and 70
percent the ground idle speed on a single-spool engine is
indicated on the N1 tachometer
- For the dual or triple spool, ground idle speed is indicated on
N2 and N3 tachometers
- Flight idle is the lowest allowable engine speed in flight and is
used primarily for descent, approach and landing
- On many engine, flight idle is approximately 10 percent rpm
higher than ground idle speed

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a. DERATED ENGINE
- When the output of an engine is intentionally limited to less

than the maximum power the engine can produce.
- An engine can be derated if it is installed in an a/c that does
not require the engine’s maximum rated power
- Or is to accommodate a components limitation such as
rotorcraft transmission.
- Benefit of derate is increased in engine life

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b. PART-THROTTLE ENGINE
- Part throttle engine or flat rated engines ( fig.3) are

configured to produce takeoff thrust under standard sea level
conditions before the power lever is advanced to the full
throttle position
- When a part throttle engine is operated in atmospheric
condition above standard, takeoff thrust is obtained by
advancing the power lever further forward than when operating
at sea level conditions
- Need to be careful during EGR not to push power lever too far
exceeding the t/off thrust setting
- Most commercial turbine engines are configured as part-
throttle engines or flat-rated.
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b. PART-THROTTLE ENGINE ( Flat-Rated ) – CON’D

- Flat-rated refers to the flat shape of the full power curve and
the point on the ambient temperature scale at which the power
starts to drop below 100%.
- Fig.3 shows this concept on a fan speed-rated engine.
- A fan speed of 96% RPM corresponds to 100% thrust on this
engine, and that this value can be obtained at any ambient
temperature up to 90 deg F. That is, by moving the power lever
more and more forward, the pilot can obtain rated thrust at
any temperature up to 90 deg.F.

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- After 90 deg F, more forward movement of the power lever is
not permitted because it most likely will result in an engine
Over-temperature.
- When ambient temperature exceeds the Flat rating of the
engine, 100% thrust can no longer be obtained. This being the
case, the aircraft’s gross weight might need to be adjusted, or,
the very least, runway take-off roll will increase and the flight
crew will need to account for this in their take-off procedures.

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- Some engines are flat-rated to only 59 deg F, others over 100
deg F. This consideration depends largely on the needs of the
aircraft manufacturer.
- Generally, Flat rating is believed to enable the engine to
produce a constant rated thrust over a wide range of ambient
temperatures without working the engine harder than
necessary, in the interest of prolonging the engine service life.

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Fig.3 Example of Flat rating (typical engine at sea level)

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c. FULL-THROTTLE ENGINE
- Most military a/c engines are configured to full-throttle

- With a full throttle engine, take off power is obtained when
the power lever is advanced to the full throttle position on a
standard sea level day
- However, total thrust output decrease as temperatures
increase and increase as temperatures decrease. So, a full-
throttle engine is equipped with automatic limiting device in the
fuel control system to prevent overboost

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2. ENGINE PARAMETERS
- Engine instruments in the cockpit of an aircraft are displayed
by either conventional panel with typical gauge displays (fig.4)
or the newer “Glass cockpit” with cathode ray tube and LED
displays ( fig.5).
- It indicate oil pressure, oil temperature, engine speed, exhaust
gas temperature and fuel flow common to both turbine and
reciprocating engine.
- For turbine engine, provide indication of engine pressure ratio,
turbine discharge pressure and torque.
- Most turbine engine have multiple temperature sensing
elements that provide temperature reading in and around
turbine section.
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Fig.4 Conventional Flight deck

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Fig.5 Glass Cockpit

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2. ENGINE PARAMETERS
a. COMPRESSOR SPEED
- Turbine engine fan and compressor speed is displayed on a
tachometer that is calibrated in percent rpm.
- Separate tachometer is used for each compressor section. E.g
N1 and N2 ( fig.6 )
- Compressor rpm is a direct indication of the thrust produced
by the engine using a centrifugal type compressor.
- Engine that utilize axial type compressor, compressor rpm is
used primarily to monitor engine speed during start and help
the pilot to identify an overspeed condition.

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Fig. 6 N1 and N2 Tachometer

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a. COMPRESSOR SPEED – CON’D

- 2 slightly different kinds of electronic tachometer found on
turbine.
1. often used as a fan speed sensor to measure the
rpm of the fan and low-pressure compressor.
2. gear driven shaft which turn a rotor with a
permanent magnet and a stationary pick-up coil.

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b. ENGINE PRESSURE RATIO (EPR) –fig.7
• Use to indicate amount of thrust produced in many turbofan

powered aircraft.
• The ratio of turbine discharge pressure to compressor inlet
pressure.
• Pressure measurements recorded by EPR probe that install in
engine inlet and at exhaust.
• Installed in engine inlet Pt2 and exhaust Pt7
• Once collected, date send to differential pressure transducer
which drives a cockpit EPR gauge

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Fig.7 Engine Pressure Ratio
PRESSURE RATIO PROVIDE A RELIABLE INDICATION OF THE

THRUST BEING PRODUCED BY CALCULATING THE RATIO OF
TURBINE DISCHARGE PX PT7 TO COMPRESSOR INLET PRESSURE PT2
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C. TURBINE DISCHARGE PRESSURE (Fig.8)

- Display the total engine internal pressure immediately aft of
the last turbine stage.
- Is located at Pt7 gauge
- This instrument display engine internal pressure at the last
turbine stage
- Turbine discharge pressure provides an indication of thrust

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Fig.8 Turbine Discharge Pressure
THRUST INDICATION ON
SOME AIRCRAFT
PROVIDED
BY Pt7 TURBINE
DISCHARGE
PRESSURE GAUGE

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d. TORQUEMETER
- Found on turboprop and turboshaft engine to produce torque
for drive propeller and rotor
- Used to provide pilot with engine power output information.
- Most often calibrated in percentage unit or foot –pounds.
- Several techniques are used to measure torque produced by
engine.
1. put sensor on a driveshaft and measure the amount of twist
in the shaft that cause by torque
and electrical signal used to position indicator.
2. measure torque relies on a measurement of torque pressure.
The sensor consists of small oil filled cylinder and piston.
Sensor installed in the reduction gearbox in manner that allow
the torque reaction force applied to the piston.

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e. FUEL FLOW INDICATOR
- Measure by indicate in pound of fuel burned per hour.

- Several are used mass flow system
- Consists of 2 cylinder, impeller and turbine which are mounted
in main fuel line.
- Impeller driven at constant speed by three-phase motor that is
powered by aircraft electrical system.
- As fuel impact turbine and rotate until a calibrated restraining
spring forces balances the rotational force.
- The deflection of turbine position the permanent magnet in a
transmitter to position corresponding to the fuel flow in the
line.

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e. FUEL FLOW INDICATOR – con’d
- Position of the permanent magnet then transmitted

electrically to permanent magnet in a receiver which position
the indication needle in the cockpit
- In addition some turbine aircraft are equipped with fuel
totalizers.
- Computerized fuel system with fuel totalizer provide pilot with
digital readout on several fuel parameters. (amount fuel used,
fuel remaining current rate fuel consumption and time
remaining for flight at the current power setting)

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f. Exhaust Gas Temperature (fig.9)
- Temperature of turbine section must be monitored closely to

prevent overheat the turbine blade and other exhaust section
components.
- Common way of monitoring the temperature of turbine section.
- Engine operating limit that use to monitor the mechanical
integrity of a turbine and overall engine operating conditions.
- Common turbine temperature sensing gauges are turbine inlet
temperature (TIT), turbine outside temperature (TOT),
interstage turbine temperature (ITT), turbine gas temperature
(TGT).
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Fig.9 Exhaust Gas Temperature

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g. ENGINE INDICATING AND CREW ALERTING -EICAS(fig.10)

- Use on modern business jet and transport aircraft
- Using cathode ray tube or liquid crystal display that mounted in
the middle of an instrument panel.
- Displays both engine monitoring instrumentation and alert
messages in a dual CRT or LCD format.
- The upper screen display primary engine instrumentation and
alerting functions while the lower screen display all secondary
engine instrumentation.
- Routine cruise operation with no abnormalities, lower screen is
often blank, if fault detected, upper screen display a warning
and send to lower screen.

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Fig.10 EICAS
DISPLAY ENGINE MONITORING

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY
INSTRUMENTATION

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TREND
MONITORING

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TREND MONITORING
- Engine Performance Monitoring has been an effective method to

provide early warning information of ongoing or impending
failures
- Allows for advance planning of corrective maintenance actions
and reduces potential costs of primary and secondary damage
resulting from fully developed failures
- Reduce risks of IFSD and flight cancellations
- EPR, RPM, Fuel flow, EGT and TLA are used to determine
aerodynamic performance of the engine.
- Engine vibration amplitude, oil consumption (including SOAP) are
used to evaluate mechanical performance

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TREND MONITORING – CON’D
- Also known as Engine Condition Monitoring, Trend Analysis etc.

but basically:
- Cockpit instrument readings are taken everyday or ever
flight either manually or automatically during cruise conditions
- The recorded data is processed in a variety of ways and
compared to ‘normal’ data established by the manufacturer or
operator, representing normal performance
- Over time a trend can be observed and any shift in engine
parameters can be used to determine gas path condition
and predict engine faults

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Specific data requirements and optional input differ by engine model

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Rule of thumb for trend report parameters
Trend Plot Indication Probable Cause

One parameter moves 90% chance that it is indication error
Two parameters move Equal chance that it is an indication or
engine related problem
Three parameters 90% chance that it is an engine problem
Four parameters shift Check for TAT error, EPR problem or
in same direction bleed system problem
Unexplainable trend Investigate whether the engine was changed

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EGT Indication Fault

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HPT Distress

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Example of an error in Cruise TAT Input
Cruise trend shifts at the same time for all engines

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Unexplained trend – engine change not recorded

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Deteriorated Engine – End of Life

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SPECTROMETRIC OIL ANALYSIS

1. Introduction
- Spectrometric Oil Analysis Program (SOAP) is a powerful tool
or technique for elemental analysis of structural metal and
other material particles up to approximately 5 micron in size,
entrained in engine oil samples.
- Generation of wear metals and other particles in an engine oil
system can indicate the changing conditions of various parts,
like bearing, gears, oil pump and other metallic parts.

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SPECTROMETRIC OIL ANALYSIS – CON’D
- These various elements ( metals and non-metals ) present in the
base oil are identified and measured in Parts Per Million (PPM)
by weight , and is also described as the concentration of wear-
metals in the used oil. This term is specifically used in aviation
industry.
- SOAP is a Proactive Condition Monitoring Maintenance
tool/technique which helps to assess the relative wear
conditions of the lubricated/oil-wetted parts of an engine on
the basis of the concentration of the wear particles in used oil.
- It can also indicate the rate of wear and its source. Thus, it
can provide an early warning of abnormal wear occurring and
also about Failure of an engine component.
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SPECTROMETRIC OIL ANALYSIS – CON’D
- By carrying out analysis of used oil for a particular engine at
periodic intervals, which is also called ‘Trend Analysis’,
Baseline Data can be recorded which can be used for
addressing problems related to specific internal engine
components based on the knowledge about the metals used for
the construction of the engine.
- Spectrometric analysis involves the measuring and trending of
concentration levels, while in-line magnetic plugs and chip
detectors are used to detect a rapidly progressing component
failure before it becomes catastrophic.
- Such an analysis can also be used for comparison purposes and
also to predict failure of an engine.
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2. General
- A failure signature can be defined for each type of damage and
comprises not only of oil contamination by particles produced
by wear, but other symptoms as well. It is therefore necessary
to look for additional signs and to employ all other methods
which will assist in this task.
(1) Presence of chips on filters or magnetic chip detectors.
(2) Vibrations.
(3) Oil pressure, consumption and discoloration.
(4) Borescope of gas path internal oil leak.
(5) Gamma radiography.
It is the sum of these information which makes up the failure
signature.
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3. Advantages of SOAP
The main advantages of SOAP are:
- Allows the operator to take timely action
- Prevent catastrophic failures which endanger safety of
personnel
- Avoid non-scheduled aircraft downtime
- Avoid costly repair or loss of equipment
- Prolonged engine life
- Increase in efficiency o

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4. Oil Sampling
a. Sampling Interval
- Sampling intervals are not standardized between one engine and
another, or even between identical engines used by different
operators.
- Intervals can be as low as 25 engine operating hours for smaller
engines and up to 250 hours on large engines.
- Whatever the interval is, when oil analysis trend start to rise,
the interval is shortened to maintain a closer surveillance on
the oil-wetted parts of the engine.

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5. How the Analyzer works
- The spectrometer measures the contaminants present in the
used oil samples as follows:
a. A film of the used oil is picked up on the rim of a rotating,
high-purity graphite disk electrode ( see Detail A of Fig. )
b. Precisely controlled, high voltage AC spark discharge is
initiated between the vertical electrode and the rotating disk
electrode burning the small film of oil
c. Light from the burning oil passes through a slit which is
positioned precisely to the wavelength for the particular
contaminants being monitored.
d. The contaminant levels are automatically registered.
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Atomic Emission Spectrometer

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6. Measurement of the metals
- Most other metals are measured accurately in concentrations
down to 2 to 3 parts per million.
- The maximum amount of normal wear has been determined for
each metal. This amount is called its ‘Threshold limit’ of
concentration.
- Wear-metals present can be of such microscopic size that they
cannot be seen by the naked eye.
- Figures below show a typical Spectrometric Oil Analysis Report
and a Spectrometric Oil Analysis Trend Plot.

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Spectrometric oil analysis report

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SPECTROMETRIC OIL ANALYSIS TREND PLOT

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INSPECTION

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INSPECTION
- The FAR require specific inspections for aircraft to remain

airworthy.
- Scheduled in accordance with no. of flight cycles of an aircraft.
- One Flight cycle is defined as one takeoff and subsequent
landing.
- 2 classification of inspections: routine and non routine.

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INSPECTION – CON’D
INSPECTION PROCESS
- Many gas turbine engine are equipped with openings, or ports,
allow to inspect the inside engine without disassembly.
- Common tools used are borescope, fiberscope, and electronic
imaging.
- Borescope (fig.11)- internal viewing device which allows to
visually inspect areas inside a turbine engine without
disassembling.
- Similar principle to a telescope in that it enlarges object like a
magnifying glass

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Fig.11 Borescope equipment

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Fig.14 Engine borescoping

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INSPECTION PROCESS
- Fiberscope or fiber optic borescope (fig.15)- Similar to

borescope, but has a flexible, articulated probe that can bend
around corners.
- Allow to view areas deep inside.
- Max. length - 4 feet.
- Electronic imaging - Provide sharp, color images on a video
monitor.
- Easier for inspectors to differentiate between an actual defect
and an unclear image.
- Fiber-optic technology and LEDs are utilized in many video
imaging systems.
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Fig.15 Fibre optic borescope
FIBEROPTIC
BORESCOPE USES
THE PRINCIPLE OF
LIGHT
TRANSMISSION
THROUGH
FLEXIBLE GLASS
FIBERS TO SEE
INSIDE
INACCESSIBLE
AREAS

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Fig.16 Fibre optic borescope

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1. ROUTINE INSPECTION
- Those inspection that are mandated by an approved inspections
schedule
- Examples include :
1. preflight inspections
- visual inspection of all external parts that can be
seen from the ground.
- most accomplished by flight crew prior each
flight
- include to check fluid leaks, fluid levels, visual
inspection on inlet, fan tailpipe and turbine
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2. Progressive/Continuous inspection
- designed for aircraft operators who do not
wish to have their aircraft grounded for several
days while an annual or the 100 hour inspection is being
accomplished.
- have to be completed within 12 calendar months.

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3. COLD SECTION INSPECTION
- Performed on components of turbine inlet, compressor and

diffuser
- Conducted using a borescope through a number of access
ports.
- Check the condition for each stage of compressor blades and
vanes for damage and erosion caused by sand, ice and other
foreign objects.

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4. HOT SECTION INSPECTION
- Purpose is to detect internal damage in the hot section which

is exposed to a great deal of heat and stress .
- Item to be checked thoroughly are combustors and turbines
- Use borescope to check combustion liners
( stress cracks, warping, hot spots cause for malfunction
fuel nozzle or fuel system problem and misalignment of burner
can shift , turbine section subjected to heat and stress,
rupture or crack )

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2. NON-ROUTINE INSPECTIONS
- Any inspection that must be done as a result of a component

failure or incident that could damage an engine such as
ingestion of birds, ice or other foreign objects and overtemp.
or over limit incidents.

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Examples include:
1. FOREIGN OBJECT DAMAGE

- Occur anytime something is drawn into a gas turbine engine,
cause small nick, dents and scratches.
- Engine performance can be effected such as increase in
EGT, decrease in EPR indications, N1 and N2 rotational speed
and excessive vibration.
- If an external inspection reveals little damage, a borescope
inspection may be done.
- If damage is clearly visible, engine have to be removed and
sent to overhaul to be repair.

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1. FOREIGN OBJECT DAMAGE – CON’D
- Shingling may be caused by FOD, this can create
compressor overspeed or a compressor stall.
- Inspect the top and bottom surfaces of the shrouds of
scoring or galling, if crack is found, the fan blade must be
replaced.
- Fig.17 shows a turbine engine compressor blade damage due
to FOD

Revision: 00
Fig.17 Turbine engine compressor blade damage

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2. ENGINE OVERTEMPERATURE
- Overheat incidents occur during engine start also in flight.
- Must refer to the manufacturer’s maintenance manual for
specific inspection details.
Fig.18 and Fig.19 show engine Operational EGT Limits

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Fig.18 Operational EGT limits ( CFM56-5B)

EGTMargin & OATL
EGT Transcient
allowance to -5B EGT limits
Area A
• If engine warm-up not sufficient
No troubleshooting. 20 overtemp permitted.
• If EGT exceedance condition identified
No troubleshooting. 10 overtemp permitted.
• If EGT exceedance condition can ’t be
identified
Troubleshooting. 10 exceedances permetted in
area A & B combined before engine removal.
Area B
Troubleshooting. 10 exceedances permetted in
area A & B combined before engine removal
Area C
The engine must be removed to examine
damage. One nonrevenue flight permitted if
damage within boroscope inspection.

Revision: 00
Fig.19 Operational EGT Limits (CFM56-5B)

Revision: 00
3. ENGINE OVERSPEED
- Damage from an overspeed typically results from excessive
centrifugal force, most overspeed inspections are primarily
concerned with the engine ‘s rotating elements.

Revision: 00
MAINTENANCE

Revision: 00
MAINTENANCE
INTRODUCTION
- Engine manufacturer are responsible to providing maintenance

information in the Instruction for Continued Airworthiness
section in each set of maintenance manuals they produce.
- The term maintenance includes inspection, parts replacement,
repair and overhaul.
Two general classification of maintenance:
1. Line maintenance and
2. Shop maintenance

Revision: 00
MAINTENANCE – CON’D
Line Maintenance
- Maintenance that be done while engine still installed on aircraft
- Tasks include all inspections, parts replacement,
troubleshooting, cleaning, trimming, verifying instrument
readings, checking fluid levels, replacing accessories and
repairs.
Shop Maintenance
- Whenever the engine cannot be repaired on the airplane , it is
removed from the airplane and send for shop maintenance or
for test cell operation and troubleshooting. Examples of shop
maintenance include : compressor blade repair due to fod,
turbine section repair due to hot start or EGT overlimit.

Revision: 00
Modular maintenance
- Modular construction is a concept that treats an engine
as a set of separate modules assembled together.
The inspection, repair and overhaul requirements of each
module can be addressed separately.
The modular maintenance allows the replacement of modules
in a minimum amount of time and costs.
Examples of modular maintenance include, repair or
replacement of compressor module compressor blade
damaged as result of FOD, repair or replacement HPT module
due damaged turbine blades as result of HOT start or EGT
overlimit.

Revision: 00
1. LINE MAINTENANCE
a. FIELD CLEANING
- Like other component, interior of a turbine engine must be
periodically cleaned.
- If this not done, engine compressor blade efficiency will
decrease due to dirt, oil or soot accumulate.
- Decrease in efficiency lead to poor acceleration, reduced
EPR and high EGT.
- Two types of cleaning method- fluid wash and an abrasive
grit blast.

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FLUID WASH ABRASIVE WASH
 Demineralized water or emulsion type  Carried out when compressor
cleaner sprayed into engine intake. contamination too heavy
 Water alone to remove salt deposit  Injecting an abrasive grit such
referred as desalinization. as Carboblast into the engine
 Washing using emulsion cleaner intake at selected power
followed by rinse to remove dirt, soot settings.
or baked known as performance  Carboblast- ground walnut
recovery wash. shells or apricot pits
 Done while engine motored by starter  Advantage by using this
(motoring wash) method, provide a longer time
 On large turbojet/fan aircraft, interval between cleaning.
accomplished by spraying washing
liquid into engine inlet while engine
idle at 60 percent.
Revision: 00
1. LINE MAINTENANCE – CON’D
b. TROUBLESHOOTING
- Define as determining the cause of unsatisfactory
powerplant performance.
- Efficient troubleshooting based on the systematic analysis
of what is happening and need the thorough knowledge of
the engine operation.
- If face with the defect, take all facts pertaining to the
defect e.g:
A. When it happened, at what rpm it happened
B. Condition, altitudes, humidity, temperature, or
power setting the defect showed up
C. Perform engine ground run
Revision: 00
b. TROUBLESHOOTING – CON’D
- To assist in troubleshooting process, some manufacturers

provide troubleshooting flow charts or trouble-cause-
remedy charts (fig.20).
- Some aircraft are equipped with built-in test equipment
(BITE ) which detect or record engine data to provide clues
as to the cause of malfunction.

Revision: 00
Fig.20 Troubleshooting Chart

Revision: 00
c. ENGINE TRIMMING
- Engine trimming refers to a process whereby an engine fuel
control unit is adjusted to allow an engine to produce engine
maximum thrust.
- Normally performed after F.C.U changed or whenever
engine not producing maximum thrust.
- Procedures for trimming vary between engine models. Refer
to the respective engine maintenance manual for the
specific procedure

Revision: 00
c. ENGINE TRIMMING – CON’D

- Typical trimming procedure requires to install calibrated
instrument for reading turbine discharge px. ,EPR and N2.
- For accurate setting for engine trimming, all bleed air must
be turn off, or engine could be over-trimmed.

Revision: 00
d. EGT AND TACHOMETER CHECKS

- Two most important factors affecting turbine eng. life are
EGT engine RPM
- If these 2 variables are incorrect, serious engine damage
will occur such as:
1. excessive high EGT - Reduced turbine blade life as much as
50%
2. low EGT - Reduced engine efficiency and thrust
3. inaccurate rpm indication - Unintentional overspeed
conditions resulting in premature engine failure

Revision: 00
d. EGT AND TACHOMETER CHECKS

- These instrument systems need to be checked periodically.
- One way to check accuracy of an engine’s EGT and rpm
indicating systems is with jet calibration ( Jetcal ) test
unit

Revision: 00
d. EGT AND TACHOMETER CHECKS – CON’D
- A model of Jetcal Analyzer consists of a portable EGT and
rpm test unit
- It allows us to:
- Functionally check a/c error without engine run or wire
disconnected
- Detect inoperative or inaccurate thermocouples in or out
of wiring harness
- Check wiring harness for continuity, resistance, identify
breaks in harness wiring and poor or dirty electrical
connection

Revision: 00
d. EGT AND TACHOMETER CHECKS – CON’D
- Check insulation on circuit wiring for short circuit to
ground or between leads
- Check EGT indicators either in instrument panel or
disconnected from the aircraft EGT system for error
- Determine eng. RPM with accuracy of ±0.1 percent during
engine run up as well as check and troubleshoot a/c
tachometer system
- Verify proper relationship between EGT and engine RPM
on engine run-up
- Check a/c fire detector, overheat detector and wing anti-
icing systems

Revision: 00
1. LINE MAINTENANACE
e. EGT CIRCUIT CHECKS

- Continuity checks of EGT circuit are designed to detect
errors cause by one or more inoperative a/c thermocouples
- It is made by :
- raise temperature of heater probe to between 500 and
700°C
- place the hot probe over each of the a/c thermocouples
- as each thermocouple heats up, EGT gauge for that eng.
register a temp.

Revision: 00
e. EGT CIRCUIT CHECKS

- Detecting a rise on a/c EGT gauge maybe difficult with EGT
systems having 8 or more thermocouples in a single harness
due to the electric characteristic of the parallel circuit in
which thermocouples operate
- In this case the Jetcal provides instruction for alternative
testing of the a/c thermocouples

Revision: 00
f. FUNCTIONAL CHECK OF EGT CIRCUIT
- Time required to test an EGT system depends on :
- number of engines
- number of thermocouples in a harness
- position of harness in an engine
- number of errors found
- time required to correct any errors
- A normal functional test on a single engine : 10 to 20
minutes
- Check is made by : heat eng. thermocouples in tailpipe
(eng. test temp.)
Revision: 00
f. FUNCTIONAL CHECK OF EGT CIRCUIT

- Thermocouples temp. increase register on a/c EGT
indicator (set of Thermocouples embedded in heater probes
also sense and register temp. output by probes)
- If temp. indicated (EGT gauge) within specified tolerance
(temp. reading on Jetcal unit), EGT circuit is working
properly
- If difference exceed allowable tolerance : troubleshoot to
determine which parts are malfunctioning

Revision: 00
h. EGT THERMOCOUPLE RESISTANCE & INSULATION CHECK

- This circuit function make it possible to analyze and isolate
any error in a/c’s EGT system
- Resistance of thermocouple harness must conform to a
narrow tolerance (variation in resistance effect amount of
current flow in thermocouple circuit)
- Inaccurate temp. readings caused by incorrect harness
resistance can result in overtemperature damage to turbine
and tailpipe

Revision: 00
i. TACHOMETER CHECK
- Tachometer indication can be verified to within ±0.1%
during engine run by measuring the frequency produced by
tachometer generator with rpm check or tackal circuit in a
Jetcal analyzer
- How?
- a/c tachometer and rpm check circuit connect in
parallel : provide simultaneous indication when eng.
Running
- to simplify the comparison between a/c’s
tachometer and check circuit the scale of rpm check
circuit is also calibrated in percent rpm.
Revision: 00
THE END

Revision: 00

Dcam PT 66 Training Module 15.21 Eng Monitoring and Ground Opn

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Dcam PT 66 Training Module 15.21 Eng Monitoring and Ground Opn

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Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

GAS TURBINE ENGINE

Issue: 01 Module 15.21.1 1

15.21 ENGINE MONITORING AND GROUND

Issue: 01 Module 15.21.1 Page No: 2

ENGINE STARTING AND

Issue: 01 Module 15.21.1 Page No: 3

ENGINE STARTING AND GROUND RUN UP

Issue: 01 Module 15.21.1 Page No: 4

ENGINE STARTING AND GROUND RUN UP – CON’D

ENGINE STARTING AND GROUND RUN UP – CON’D

Issue: 01 Module 15.21.1 Page No: 6

ENGINE STARTING AND GROUND RUN UP – CON’D

- Watch the EGT indicator to confirm a light-off. A sharp rise in

ENGINE STARTING AND GROUND RUN UP – CON’D

Issue: 01 Module 15.21.1 Page No: 8

Fig.1 Cockpit – Main Landing Gear Down

Issue: 01 Module 15.21.1 Page No: 9

ENGINE STARTING AND GROUND RUN UP – CON’D

Issue: 01 Module 15.21.1 Page No: 10

ENGINE STARTING AND GROUND RUN UP – CON’D

Fig.2 Power Check

Issue: 01 Module 15.21.1 Page No: 12

ENGINE STARTING AND GROUND RUN UP – CON’D

- Before a gas turbine engine is shutdown, the engine is run at

Issue: 01 Module 15.21.1 Page No: 13

ENGINE STARTING AND GROUND RUN UP – CON’D

5. COLD WEATHER OPERATIONS

- Poses special challenges and requires you to follow special

Issue: 01 Module 15.21.1 Page No: 14

ENGINE STARTING AND GROUND RUN UP – CON’D

5. COLD WEATHER OPERATIONS – CON’D

- EGT indication may be much lower than during warm weather

Issue: 01 Module 15.21.1 Page No: 15

ENGINE STARTING AND GROUND RUN UP – CON’D

Issue: 01 Module 15.21.1 Page No: 16

1. Engine starting and Ground Run Up

ENGINE STARTING AND GROUND RUN UP – CON’D

ENGINE STARTING AND GROUND RUN UP – CON’D

Issue: 01 Module 15.21.1 Page No: 19

ENGINE STARTING AND GROUND RUN UP – CON’D

Issue: 01 Module 15.21.1 Page No: 20

ENGINE STARTING AND GROUND RUN UP – CON’D

ENGINE STARTING AND GROUND RUN UP – CON’D

Issue: 01 Module 15.21.1 Page No: 22

ENGINE STARTING AND GROUND RUN UP – CON’D

ENGINE POWER OUTPUT

Issue: 01 Module 15.21.2 Page No: 24

ENGINE POWER OUTPUT AND PARAMETERS

1. ENGINE POWER OUTPUT ( PERFORMANCE )

ENGINE POWER OUTPUT AND PARAMETERS – CON’D

1. ENGINE POWER OUTPUT ( PERFORMANCE ) – CON’D

Issue: 01 Module 15.21.2 Page No: 26

ENGINE POWER OUTPUT AND PARAMETERS – CON’D

1. ENGINE POWER OUTPUT ( PERFORMANCE ) – CON’D

Issue: 01 Module 15.21.2 Page No: 27

ENGINE POWER OUTPUT AND PARAMETERS – CON’D

1. ENGINE POWER OUTPUT ( PERFORMANCE ) – CON’D

Issue: 01 Module 15.21.2 Page No: 28

ENGINE POWER OUTPUT AND PARAMETERS – CON’D

- When the output of an engine is intentionally limited to less

Issue: 01 Module 15.21.2 Page No: 29

ENGINE POWER OUTPUT AND PARAMETERS – CON’D