Research Methodology

What is research?
• “A careful, systematic , patient study and
investigation in some field of knowledge,
undertaken to establish facts or princilpes”
(Grinnell, 1993:4)
• It is a discovery (Rediscovery); A voyage from
the known to the unknown
• An effort to be closer to the truth
 Characteristics
• It is controlled. In real life for an outcome
there could be many affecting factors. In a
study of cause and effect relationships one
has to link effects with causes and causes with
effects. Establishment of this linkage is
impossible unless it is a laboratory test.
Therefore instead of controlling external
factors we have to quantify the impact of such
factors.
 Contd.,
• It is rigorous. Procedures followed to find
answers to a problem must be relevant,
appropriate and justifiable. Researcher needs to
be very careful about this.
• It is systematic. Procedures adopted for a
research should follow a logical sequence. Some
procedures must follow others.
• It should be valid and verifiable. Your research
conclusion based on findings should be correct
and can be verified by you as well as others.
 Contd.,
• It is empirical. The conclusions of the research
should be based on evidence gathered from
information collected from real life
experiences/ observations
• It is critical. Research procedures and methods
applied should withstand critical scrutiny.
They must be foolproof and free from
drawbacks
 Research process- Steps
• 1. Formulation a of a research problem
• 2. Creation of a research design
• 3. Constructing instruments for data collection
• 4. Selecting a sample
• 5.Writing the research proposal
• 6. Collecting data
• 7. Processing data
• 8. Writing the report
 Formulating research problem
• Tasks:
• Literature review
• Formulating the research problem
• Identifying variables
• Constructing hypotheses
 Literature review
• To make your research problem clear and
bring focus into it
• Develop your methodology
• To know where you are
• To have a broader knowledge in your area of
research
 Contd.,
• Search and select literature pertaining to your
area
• Review selected literature
• Develop a theoretical framework (theories
and issues related your study)
• Develop a conceptual framework (aspects you
select from theoretical framework that form
the basis of your research)
 Contd.,
• Sources:
• Books
• Journals
• Electronic resources: online and offline
How to write the literature review
• Write under themes
• Some may follow chronological order
• Highlight your arguments
• Provide references
 Formulating research problem
• Any question that needs answer can be a
research problem. However, not all questions
can be transformed into research problems.
• What matters here:
• Your knowledge in research methodology
• Your knowledge of the subject area
• Your understanding of the issues to be
examined
 Contd.,
• Formation of a research problem is the first
step in the research. Identify the destination
before you start the journey. It is the
foundation of your building.
• Sources of research problems:
• People (individuals, groups, organizations,
communities)
• Problems (Issues, situations, associations,,
needs, demographic)
 Contd.,
• Programmes (contents, structure, outcomes,
attributes, satisfaction, users, consumers)
• Phenomenon (cause and effect relationships,
study of a phenomenon itself)
• Research problem is your topic.
• Consider the following when selecting a
topic:
• Your interest
• Your level of expertise as well as of your
 Contd.,
• Use concepts that can be measured
• Topic should be relevant to your profession/
subject area
• Availability of data
• Ethical issues
 Formulation of objectives
• Objectives are goals of your study
• Main objectives
• Secondary or sub-objectives
• They must be clear, complete and specific
 Identifying variables
• A concept or perception that takes on
different values and that can be measured is a
variable. It is something that varies.
• Types:
• Independent variables (they are responsible
for bringing about change in a phenomenon,
situation)
 Contd.,
• Dependent variables (effects of a change
variable, the outcome of the changes brought
about by changes in an independent
variable)
• Extraneous variables (other factors that affect
the changes bring about by independent
variables)
• Intervening variables (those that link the
independent and dependent variables)
 Constructing hypotheses
• It is an ‘anticipation of nature’ or a hunch,
assumption, assertion
• “a tentative statement about something, the
validity of which is usually unknown’ (Bailey,
1976:126)
• It may be right, partially right or wrong
• It should be simple, specific and conceptually
clear
 Research design
• It is the plan, structure and strategy of
investigating the research problem
• It is an operational plan
• Procedures to be adopted
• Testing the design
 Constructing an instrument for
data collection
• Data collection methods:
• Primary sources
• Observation
• Interview
• Questionnaire
• Use of secondary sources
• Establish the validity of the selected
instrument
 Selecting a sample
• “Process of selecting a few from a bigger
group”
• Bigger group is the population and the
selected few is the sample
• Larger the sample size the more accurate will
be the findings
 Sampling types
• Sampling strategies are numerous. They can
be categorized into three groups:
• Random/probability sampling
• Non-random/probability sampling
• Mixed sampling
 Research proposal
• It is your plan of research
• It reveals what you are going to do, how you
plan to do and why you have selected the
proposed procedures
• It guides you as well as your supervisor
• It is an academic piece of writing
• It shows the strength of your proposed
research
 Elements
• Introduction (an overview of the main area
under study, historical background,
philosophical issues etc., trends, major
theories, main issues under consideration
etc.)
• Importance (Why you do it? What are the
benefits?)
• Problem (Your research problem or the
research questions)
• Literature review
 Contd.,
• Objectives ( main and secondary)
• Hypotheses
• Study design (population, sample, data
collection methods etc.)
• Setting (brief description of the community,
organization or agency in which you are going
to carry out the research)
• Analysis of data (methods you are going to
use)
 Contd.,
• Structure of the report or chapterization
• Limitations and problems you may encounter
• Work plan or schedule
• Budget (optional)
 Collection data
• Ethical issues relating to research participants
( their consent, incentives, sensitive
information, harm to participants etc.)
• Ethical issues relating to the researcher
(avoiding bias, using appropriate research
methodology, correct reporting etc.)
 Processing data
• Editing data
• Coding data
• Verifying coded data
• Analyzing data
• Displaying data (charts, diagrams, tables)
 Writing the report or thesis
• Follow standards (International standards or
departmental guidelines)
• Use appropriate referencing/citation system
• Preparation of a bibliography
• Avoid plagiarism
• Sources:
• Kumar, Ranjit (1999). Research methodology :
a step by step guide for beginners, 2nd. ed.,
Sage, London
• Kothari, C.R. (1990). Research methodology :
methods and techniques, 2nd. Ed., Wishwa
Prakashan, New Delhi
• Thank you!