Signal Conditioning

Amplifiers for Voltage Dividers

• Voltage dividers need high-impedance voltage meters.
• The noninverting amplifier in figure yields high input impedance and gain
1+R2/R1.
• C is added to limit bandwidth.
• If we consider the Thevenin equivalent circuit for the voltage divider and op-
amp error sources shown in Figure.
• input offset voltage and currents-the output voltage is
Signal amplifier for a voltage divider equivalent circuit when considering op amp input offset
voltage and current errors.
Hence, there is an output zero error (OZE),
• IZE = Vio + Iio (R1||R2)
• where Iio = In - Ip is the op amp input offset current.
• The values for Vio, Ip, In, and Iio in the above equations are those at the op amp working
temperature, not at ambient temperature.
• Because of the internally generated heat, the op amp reaches a temperature above the
actual ambient temperature Ta, depending on the thermal resistance between its
junctionsand the surrounding air.
• If the op amp dissipates Pd, then
T =Ta + Pd.(θjc + θcs + θsa)
• where θjc, θcs and θsa are, respectively, the thermal resistances between the internal chip
and amplifier case, which depends on the package type, between the case and the heat sink.
• if used, and between the heat sink and the ambient air.
• Pd includes the quiescent power (Pq).
• the power supplied to the feedback network, and the power dissipated by the current
supplied to the ensuing stage (load), which usually has high input impedance. In signal
amplifiers, often only
Numerical:

• The OPA177G is a precision op amp that has Vio = 60 µV with 1.2 µV/C drift, I b =
2.8 nA with 60 pA/C drift, Pq = 60 mW when supplied at +/-15 V (all maximal
values), and θja = 100 C/W for a plastic DIP package. Calculate its actual input
offset voltage and currents when used in a noninverting amplifier (Figure 3.15)
supplied at +/- 15 V, with R2 = 100 kΩ and R1 = 100 Ω the input voltage is 1 mV,
the load resistance is 10 k Ω, and the ambient temperature inside the equipment
is 35 C.

• We first estimate the power dissipated in the resistors and by the current
supplied to the load in order to estimate the overall power dissipated by the op-
amp. For the given resistors, the gain will be 1001; hence the output voltage will
be about 1 V. The drop in voltage across R2 and across the load will be about 1 V,
and that across R1 will be about 1 mV. Therefore,
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE: BALANCE MEASUREMENTS
• It is based on a feedback system, either electric or manual, in order to
adjust the value of a standard resistor until the current through the
galvanometer or other null indicator is zero
• Once the balance condition has been achieved we have
• R3= R4(R2/R1)
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE: DEFLECTION MEASUREMENTS
Sensitivity and Linearity
• Wheatstone bridges are often used in the detection mode.
• Instead of measuring the action needed to restore balance on the bridge, this
method measures the voltage difference between both voltage dividers or the
current through a detector bridging them.
• Using the notation of Figure, if the bridge is balanced when x is 0, which is the
usual situation, we define a parameter k,
• K = R1/R4 = R2/R0
• Voltage difference between both of the branches are
Vo = Vr (R3/(R2+R3) – R4/(R1+R4))
= Vr kx /(k+1)(k+1+x)
• Thus the output voltage is proportional to the changes in R3 only when
x<<k+1; that is, the sensitivity depends on x (and k and Vr), For x = 0, the
sensitivity is

• The maximal sensitivity as a function of k is obtained by setting dS0/dk =

0, which yields k = 1. By calculating the second derivative we can verify
that this point is a maximum.
• On the other hand, from V0 equation we infer that k = 1 yields a nonlinear
output unless x<<2.
• shows how the actual output departs from a straight line through the origin
for k = 1.
 Example 3.10
• A given strain-gage-based load cell uses a full bridge apparently damaged
because it does not yield a zero output when unloaded. To find a possible
explanation, the voltage supply leads (1 and 2) and amplifier leads (3 and 4) are
disconnected. Then several measurements between leads yield the following
results: between 1 and 2, 127Ω; between 1 and 3, 92 Ω; between 1 and 4, 92 Ω;
between 2 and 3, 92 Ω; between 2 and 4, 106 Ω; between 3 and 4, 127 Ω. All the
measurements are performed with open connections for the non-measured lead
pair. Determine the damaged gage and give a possible explanation for its damage.
DIFFERENTIAL AND INSTRUMENTATION AMPLIFIERS

• Voltage amplifiers yield an output voltage proportional to that at their input.

• A differential amplifier processes the voltage difference between two input
terminals, neither of which is connected to the reference voltage of its power
supply.
• In addition, we will show later that it is best for amplifier input terminals to
have high and similar impedance to ground.
• Common resistive sensor bridges supplied by a grounded voltage or current
source cannot have any output terminal grounded.
• Figure shows a simple differential amplifier. If we
first assume that the op amp has a frequency-
dependent differential gain Ad and negligible
common mode gain (Ac = 0), then the (Laplace
transform of the) output voltage is
• where β = R1/(R1 + R2) is the feedback factor for
the op amp. To illustrate the differential properties
of the circuit, it is convenient to write the output
as a function of the differential input voltage vd =
v2 - v1. In order to this, we substitute in equation.
vd = v1 – v2
vc = (v1+ v2) / 2
• To amplify vd but not vc we must have Gc = 0,
which is obtained when
• R4/R3 = R2/R1 = K
• and Gd ~= k when Ad >> k + 1. For gains below 1000, most op amps meet this
condition at low frequencies. Otherwise, a too low Ad introduces a gain
uncertainty because Gd would depend on Ad, which is not well known.
• It is quantified by the common mode rejection ratio (CMRR), defined as the
differential gain divided by the common mode gain.

• where the subscript R indicates that the finite CMRR results only from resistor
mismatching.
• The CMRR is usually expressed in decibels by taking the decimal logarithm of
above equation and multiplying the result by 20.
• Therefore, if vc is constant, the finite CMRR adds a zero error; but if vc
depends on the measurand, the CMRR introduces a gain or a nonlinearity
error.
Instrumentation Amplifier Based on Two Op Amps
An instrumentation amplifier (IA) is a differential
amplifier that simultaneously
yields high input impedance and high CMRR.

In addition, it usually offers high stable gain that

can be adjusted by a single resistor, low value and
low drift offset voltage and currents, and low output
impedance.

Therefore, although it is also necessary to match

four resistors, now Rg allows gain adjustment
without affecting the matching of those four critical
resistors.

But it is not possible to obtain unity gain. If the

CMRR is finite. by adding Vref to the right-side
member.
disadvantages
• A shortcoming of this circuit is the possible saturation of the first op
amp when the common mode input signal is large.
• The condition to ful-fill to avoid that saturation in the usual case with
vc>>vd is vc(1 + R3/R4) < Vsat, where Vsat is the op amp saturation
voltage.
• Furthermore, because of the asymmetrical gain path for v1 and v2,
the common mode gain will never be zero, even if op amps and
resistors are perfectly matched.
• Nevertheless, the CMRR can be very high below 10 Hz.
Example 3.12
(sensor and signal conditioning by Webster)
• The piezo-resistive pressure sensor in Figure consists of a bridge of
four silicon strain gages of 4000 Ω that has 1 mV/psi sensitivity and 1
mV maximal offset when supplied at 12 V. Ir = 100 µA is highly stable.
If the op amps are supplied at 0 V and 5 V, calculate the resistors in
order for a pressure range from 0 psi to 100 psi to yield an output
voltage from 0.5 V to 4 V.
Instrumentation Amplifiers Based on Three Op Amps

• The circuit in Figure is the classic

implementation for an instrumentation
amplifier.
• It is built from a fully differential amplifier and
a differential amplifier acting as differential to
single-ended converter.
• When the three op amps are assumed ideal,
the outputs of the first stage are
• The second stage yields

• where G =2R2/R1. Because R1 does not have to full-fill any matching

condition, we can control the differential mode gain through R1
without affecting the CMRR.
• In practice we have neither perfect resistor matching nor ideal op amps.
• This does not have any serious effects on input impedances that always reach
very high values both in common mode and differential mode.
• The CMRR IA, however, depends on
(a) resistor matching and CMRRoa in the second stage
(b) matching of input op amps.
 INTERFERENCE
• Interference is defined as those signals that affect the measurement system as
a consequence of the measurement principle used.
• Here we are concerned with electronic signal conditioning, and therefore
interference is any electric signal present at the output of the system or circuit
being considered and coming from a source external to it.
• Interference problems are not exclusive for electronic measurement systems
but are also present in any electronic system.
• The appropriate technique to reduce interference depends on the coupling
method for the undesired signals.
• Depending on whether the coupling method is through a common impedance,
an electric field or a magnetic field, we will respectively speak of resistive,
capacitive, and inductive interference.
Signal conditioning for reactive variation sensor
• Signal conditioning for all reactive variation sensors must include a supply of exciting
alternating current.
• Capacitive sensors usually have capacitance smaller than 100 pF.
• The supply frequency must then be from 10 kHz to 100 MHz in order to yield reasonable
values for their impedances.
• In order to avoid capacitive interference because of their high output impedance, we
frequently connect capacitive sensors with shielded cables.
• But this adds a capacitance in parallel with that of the sensor, which reduces sensitivity
and decreases linearity.
• Furthermore, any relative movement between cable conductors and the insulating
dielectric can increase errors.
• The usual solution is to place the electronic circuits as close as possible to the sensor,
thus using short cables and even rigid cables, and to apply driven shield techniques or
impedance transformers.
• When the capacitance changes according to below equation
(a) A voltage divider yields a nonlinear output for a single sensor but
(b) yields a linear output for a differential sensor.

This is nonlinear because of denominator This is linear because of denominator is constant

vo is depend on x only
AC Bridge
• When the bridge includes only one sensor whose impedance changes linearly
with the measurand, Z1 = Z0(1 + x), and Z0 = Z2 = Z3 = Z4, the output voltage is

• and therefore vo is proportional to x. Furthermore, the same as in voltage

dividers, this circuit cancels changes that are simultaneous for both sensor
elements, This makes ac bridges the most attractive solution for differential
sensors.
 AC Bridges
Classification of AC Bridges
AC bridges

Self inductance Capacitive bridges Frequency bridges

bridges
(Wein’s bridge)

De Sauty’s bridge Schering’s bridge

Owen’s bridge
Anderson’s bridge
Hay’s bridges
Maxwell’s capacitance comparision bridge
Maxwell’s inductance comparision bridge
• Various sources used:
 power line supply for normal to low frequency application
 Electronics Oscillators for high frequency application
• Various detectors used:
 telephone detector/ Head phones (250 Hz- 4 kHz)
Vibration galvanometers (5Hz- 1000 Hz)
Tunable amplifier detectors (10 Hz- 10 KHz)
 Cathode ray oscilloscopes ( for higher frequency)
 CARRIER AMPLIFIERS AND COHERENT DETECTION
Fundamentals and Structure of Carrier Amplifiers
• A carrier amplifier is required for all sensors whose output is an amplitude
modulated (AM) ac signal and that respond to positive and negative values
for the measurand.
• That is the case, for example, for LVDTs, for reactance variation and resistive
sensors placed in an ac voltage divider or bridge (particularly differential
sensors).
• A carrier amplifier is a circuit that performs the functions of ac amplification,
demodulation, and low-pass filtering, including the necessary oscillator, as
shown in Figure.
• coherent amplifiers are carrier amplifiers whose oscillator drives the
measured system rather than the sensor.
• That is the case, for example, of optical and other radiation-based sensors
when the incoming radiation is chopped to feed the sensor a square
waveform whose two levels are the unknown level and a reference level.

Low-pass
Sensor Amplifier Multiplier
filter

Oscillator

A carrier amplifier includes an oscillator that drives the sensor, an ac amplifier,

and a coherent demodulator consisting of a multiplier and a low-pass filter.
• The amplitude modulation in ac sensors arises from the product of the
supply voltage times the variable to be measured. For example, the output of
a voltage divider incorporating a differential sensor is

• If the driving voltage is sinusoidal with peak value Ve,

Ve(t) = Ve cos 2πfet
which is a double-sideband transmitted carrier (DSBTC) AM signal
• Similarly, the output of an ac bridge incorporating a differential sensor is

which is a double-sideband suppressed carrier (DSBSC) AM signal

• The input ac amplifier may detect voltage or current depending on the
sensor type, so that its output is linear. Usually, fe >> fx and we need a
narrow-band amplifier centered on fe. The demodulator must recover X,
fx, and φx.
• The demodulation must be synchronous in order to recover both the
amplitude and phase of x(t).
• Using, for example, a simple
• envelope detector (rectification followed by low-pass filtering) would
not obtain information about the sign of x(t)
• cases a and b, which are based on simple
rectification yield the same output in spite
of the respective inputs vo.t. having
opposite signs.
• Cases c and d, which are based on
synchronous rectification, yield outputs with
the same amplitude but different signs,
corresponding to the respective signal vo(t).
• Phase-sensitive (coherent or synchronous)
demodulation consists of multiplying the
modulated signal vo(t) by a reference signal
vr(t) in phase with the carrier (excitation)
signal ve(t) and then filtering the resulting
signal with a lowpass
• filter (Figure 5.21). If the reference signal is
sinusoidal,
• If the reference signal is sinusoidal,

• If, in addition to the same phase, the excitation and reference signals have
the same frequency then
• Output of LPF is
Specific signal conditioners for capacitive sensors

1.capacitive sensor in a variable oscillator

2. integrators built from switched capacitors that obtain an output
voltage from a difference in electric charge.
A) Charge redistribution method
• Auto zero phase: The op-amp output is
zero.

• In the measurement phase, the op amp

working as integrator. If the charge
stored in Cx redistributes between them and
the op amp output remains at 0 V.

• But if , there is a net charge flow

through Ci and the op amp output voltage is
proportional to

• The output stage is sample-and-hold

amplifier that keeps the last voltage output
during the next autozero phase.
B) Integrator based on switched capacitors

• There are also two capacitors and two phases but instead of charging capacitors at a dc voltage, they are
connected to out-of-phase clock signals. The switch resetting Ci is clocked at the same frequency
C) Charge transfer method

• transferring charge from an unknown capacitor to a known uncharged

capacitor. If then vtg across sampling capacitor is

• Unknown capacitance calculated by

D) Charge transfer method to ungrounded
capacitance
• Cin (100 nF) ensures that the
inverting input of each op
amp is kept at virtual ground
during the fast charging and
discharging cycles.

• Therefore, stray capacitances

do not interfere because Cx
has both electrodes
connected to low-impedance
sources.

• Feedback capacitors C
average the current.

• The differential output

voltage is proportional to the
current, hence to Cx.
E) The Twin-T circuit During the positive half-cycle of the ac source
voltage, C1 charges to the peak value
through D1 and C2 discharges to ground
though R2 and the current detector, which
must have slow response.

The circuit is designed with R1 =R2. If C1 = C2

the reading will be zero. But if C1 not equal
to C2, the net current through the current
detector will be proportional to C1 - C2.

The sensitivity is maximal when the time

constants R1C1 and R2C2 are of the same
order of magnitude as the period of the
source voltage.
 Resolver to Digital and Digital to Resolver converter

Resolver
• Working Principle
 Resolver to digital converter

1. Direct angle (or) Arctangent (or) Inverse Tangent technique

2. Phase analog technique
3. Sampling technique
4. Tracking loop or Angle Tracking Observer (ATO) Technique
5. Dual Converter Technique1.
Synchro to Resolver Convertor
Signal conditioning for Self-generating sensors

• CHOPPER AND LOW-DRIFT AMPLIFIERS

• Offset and Drifts in Op Amps

where Ta is the ambient temperature,
θjc, θjs, and θsa are the respective thermal resistances between the internal chip and amplifier
case between the case and the heat sink, if used, and between the heat sink and the ambient air.
Pd includes the quiescent power, Pq the power supplied to the feedback network and the power
dissipated inside the amplifier by the current delivered to the load.
Electrometer and Trans impedance amplifier
• Signals coming from current sources or from high output impedance voltage sources
for example, semiconductor-junction-based nuclear radiation detectors,
photoelectric cells, photomultiplier tubes, piezoelectric sensors require a
measurement system featuring a low input current.

• For low-frequency signals - a voltage amplifier or a current-to-voltage

converter (trans impedance amplifier) based on a low-drift op amp is
required.

• In piezoelectric sensors that do not have dc response or in radiation detectors

detecting incoming pulses- either an electrometer or a charge amplifier can be used.
Electrometer
• Input resistance larger than 1 TΩ and an input current lower than
about 1 pA.
Where,
is a system dc gain
is a transition frequency of open loop amplifier.
 Charge amplifiers
• A charge amplifier is a circuit whose equivalent input impedance is a
capacitance that provides a very high value of impedance at low
frequencies.

• Its function is to obtain a voltage proportional to that charge and yield

a low output impedance. Hence, it is a charge-to-voltage converter.
Chopper Amplifier
 I to P converter
• Flapper Nozzle arrangement:

• Electro Magnet: 

• Springs: are used to keep the nozzle stable.

• Pivot:
Operation of I to P converter

• In the Current to Pressure converter, we usually give input current signal as 4 - 20 mA . We also give a
continuous supply of 20 P.S.I to the Flapper Nozzle apparatus.

• The Flapper of the Flapper-Nozzle instrument is connected to Pivot so that it can move up and down and a
magnetic material was attached to other end.

• As the magnet gets activated. the flapper moves towards the electromagnet and the nozzle gets closed to
some extent.

• So the some part of 20 P.S.I supplied will escape through nozzle and remaining pressure will come as
output. If the current signal is high, then power of the magnet will increase, then flapper will move closer
to the nozzle, so less pressure will escape through nozzle and output pressure increases.

• In this way the output pressure will be proportional to the input current.

• For the input current of 4 - 20 mA we can get the output pressure of 3 - 15 P.S.I