Hardware: Input, Processing,

and Output Devices

Chapter 3

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 Principles and Learning Objectives

• Assembling an effective, efficient computer system

requires an understanding of its relationship to the
information system and the organization.

– Describe how to select and organize computer system

components to support information system objectives and
business organization needs.

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Principles and Learning Objectives
• When selecting computer devices, you also must
consider your current and future needs. Your choice of
a particular computer system device should always
allow for later improvements.
– Describe the power, speed, and capacity of central
processing and memory devices.
– Describe the access methods, capacity, and portability of
secondary storage devices.
– Discuss the speed, functionality, and importance of input and
output devices.
– Identify popular classes of computer systems and discuss
the role of each.

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 Hardware Components

• Motherboard
• Central processing unit (CPU)
• Primary storage (main memory; memory)
• Secondary storage
• Input devices
• Output devices

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 Motherboard
• The motherboard is the printed circuit
board that contains the electrical circuitry
for the computer.
• The majority of parts found on the
motherboard are integrated circuits.
– An integrated circuit (or chip) includes
millions of transistors and carries electrical
current.
– A transistor is a switch that is able to control
the electrical signal flow to the circuit.
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 CPU
• The two main parts of the CPU are the
control unit and the arithmetic logic unit.
• The control unit retrieves instructions from
memory and interprets and performs those
instructions.
• The control unit manages the machine
cycle or processing cycle, the four-part
process performed by the CPU.

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 CPU
• The arithmetic logic unit (ALU) performs
arithmetic and logical operations.
– Arithmetic operations involve adding, subtracting,
multiplying, and dividing.
– Logical operations involve comparisons between
two or more data items.
• Registers store data when it must be
temporarily stored in the CPU.

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Hardware Components

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 Hardware Components in Action

• Step 1: Fetch instruction

• Step 2: Decode instruction
• Step 3: Execute the instruction
• Step 4: Store results

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Hardware Components in Action

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 Processing Characteristics
• Machine cycle time is measured in:
– Microseconds (1 millionth)
– Nanoseconds (1 billionth)
– Picoseconds (1 trillionth)

• Clock speed: electronic pulses affecting machine cycle

time
– Hertz: one cycle (pulse) per second
– Megahertz (MHz): millions of cycles per second

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Clock Speed

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 Wordlength and Bus Line Width
• Bits (Binary Digits): smallest form of data in a
computer
• Word: number of bits that can be processed as
a unit
• Bus lines: electrical paths of data flow
– Address Bus
– Data Bus
– Control Bus
• A data bus Data bus width is measured in
bits.
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Memory Characteristics and
Functions

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Storage Capacity

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Types of Memory

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Hierarchy of Memory

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Characteristics of Storage Devices
• Speed
• Volatility
• Access method
• Portability
• Cost and capacity
• Let’s examine each of these...

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 Speed
• Primary storage speed
– Typically faster than secondary storage speed
by a factor of 105 or more
– Expressed in nanoseconds (billionths of a
second)
• Secondary storage speed
– Expressed in milliseconds (thousandths of a
second)

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 Volatility
• Primary storage devices are generally
volatile
– Cannot reliably hold data for long periods
• Secondary storage devices are generally
nonvolatile
– Hold data without loss over long periods of
time

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 Access Method
• Serial access (linear, such as a tape)
• Random access (direct access, such as
RAM, Hard drive)
• Parallel access (simultaneous access,
such as RAID)

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 Portability
• Removable storage media with
standardized formats (e.g., compact disc
and tape storage)
• Typically results in slower access speeds

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Characteristics

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 Cost and Capacity
• Cost increases:
– With improved speed, volatility, or portability
– As access method moves from serial to
random to parallel access method
• Primary storage - expensive (high speed
and combination of parallel/random access
methods)
• Capacity of secondary storage devices is
greater than primary storage devices
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 Types of ROM

• ROM (read-only memory)

• PROM (programmable read-only memory)
• EPROM (erasable programmable read-only
memory)
• EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable
Read-Only Memory)

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 Memory Types
I. Secondary Memory
II.Primary Memory
a)RAM
i. SRAM
ii. DRAM
iii. MRAM
b)ROM
i. PROM
ii. EPROM
c)Hybrid
i. EEPROM
ii. NVRAM
iii. Flash Memory
d)Cache Memory
e)Virtual Memory

Dr.Faisal Alzyoud
 Primary Memory
 Primary storage (or main memory or internal
memory), often referred to simply as memory, is
the only one directly accessible to the CPU. The
CPU continuously reads instructions stored there
and executes them as required.
 Main memory is directly or indirectly connected
to the CPU via a memory bus. It is actually two
buses : an address bus and a data bus. The CPU
firstly sends a number through an address bus, a
number called memory address, that indicates the
desired location of data. Then it reads or writes
the data itself using the data bus.
 It is divided into RAM and ROM.
 RAM
 The RAM family includes two important memory
devices: static RAM (SRAM) and dynamic RAM
(DRAM). The primary difference between them is the
lifetime of the data they store.
1) SRAM retains its contents as long as electrical power
is applied to the chip. If the power is turned off or lost
temporarily, its contents will be lost forever.
2) DRAM, on the other hand, has an extremely short data
lifetime-typically about four milliseconds. This is true
even when power is applied constantly. DRAM
controller is used to refresh the data before it expires,
the contents of memory can be kept alive for as long as
they are needed. So DRAM is as useful as SRAM after
all.
 Types of RAM
• Double Data Rate synchronous dynamic random
access memory or also known as DDR1 SDRAM is a
class of memory integrated circuits used in computers.
The interface uses double pumping (transferring data on
both the rising and falling edges of the clock signal) to
send double the amount of data then SDRAM.
• DDR2 memory is fundamentally similar to DDR
SDRAM. Still, while DDR SDRAM can transfer data
across the bus two times per clock, DDR2 SDRAM can
perform four transfers per clock. DDR2 uses the same
memory cells, but doubles the bandwidth by using the
multiplexing technique.
 MRAM (MagnetoResistive RAM)
• Magnetoresistive random-access memory is a type of non-volatile random-
access memory which stores data in magnetic domains.
• MRAM technology is completely different to any other semiconductor
technology that is currently in use and it offers a number of advantages:
• MRAM memory technology retains its data when the power is removed
• It offers a higher read write speed when compared to other technologies
including Flash and EEPROM
• Consumes a comparatively low level of power
• MRAM data does not degrade over time
 Types of ROM
• Memories in the ROM family are distinguished by the methods
used to write new data to them (usually called programming),
and the number of times they can be rewritten. This classification
reflects the evolution of ROM devices from hardwired to
programmable to erasable-and-programmable. A common feature
is their ability to retain data and programs forever, even during a
power failure.
• ROM (read-only memory)
• PROM (programmable read-only memory)
• EPROM (erasable programmable read-only memory)
• EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only
Memory)
 PROM
• PROM (programmable ROM) is purchased in an unprogrammed
state. If you were to look at the contents of an unprogrammed
PROM, the data is made up entirely of 1's. The process of writing
your data to the PROM involves a special piece of equipment
called a device programmer. The device programmer writes data
to the device one word at a time by applying an electrical charge
to the input pins of the chip. Once a PROM has been programmed
in this way, its contents can never be changed. If the code or data
stored in the PROM must be changed, the current device must be
discarded. As a result, PROMs are also known as one-time
programmable (OTP) devices.
 EPROM
 An EPROM (erasable-and-programmable ROM) is
programmed in exactly the same manner as a PROM.
However, EPROMs can be erased and reprogrammed
repeatedly. To erase an EPROM, you simply expose the
device to a strong source of ultraviolet light. (A window
in the top of the device allows the light to reach the
silicon.) By doing this, you essentially reset the entire
chip to its initial-unprogrammed-state. Though more
expensive than PROMs, their ability to be reprogrammed
makes EPROMs an essential part of the software
development and testing process.
 HYBRID Types
• As memory technology has matured in recent years, the
line between RAM and ROM has blurred. Now, several
types of memory combine features of both. These
devices do not belong to either group and can be
collectively referred to as hybrid memory devices.
Hybrid memories can be read and written as desired, like
RAM, but maintain their contents without electrical
power, just like ROM. Two of the hybrid devices,
EEPROM and flash, are descendants of ROM devices.
These are typically used to store code. The third hybrid,
NVRAM, is a modified version of SRAM. NVRAM
usually holds persistent data.
 Hybrid Types
• EEPROMS are electrically-erasable-and-programmable.
Internally, they are similar to EPROMs, but the erase
operation is accomplished electrically, rather than by
exposure to ultraviolet light. Any byte within an
EEPROM may be erased and rewritten. Once written,
the new data will remain in the device forever-or at least
until it is electrically erased. The primary tradeoff for
this improved functionality is higher cost, though write
cycles are also significantly longer than writes to a
RAM. So you wouldn't want to use an EEPROM for
your main system memory.
 Hybrid types
 Flash memory combines the best features of the memory devices
described thus far. Flash memory devices are high density, low
cost, nonvolatile, fast (to read, but not to write), and electrically
reprogrammable. These advantages are overwhelming and, as a
direct result, the use of flash memory has increased dramatically
in embedded systems. From a software viewpoint, flash and
EEPROM technologies are very similar. The major difference is
that flash devices can only be erased one sector at a time, not byte-
by-byte. Typical sector sizes are in the range 256 bytes to 16KB.
Despite this disadvantage, flash is much more popular than
EEPROM and is rapidly displacing many of the ROM devices as
well.
 HYBRID types
• The third member of the hybrid memory class is NVRAM (non-
volatile RAM). Nonvolatility is also a characteristic of the ROM
and hybrid memories discussed previously. However, an NVRAM
is physically very different from those devices. An NVRAM is
usually just an SRAM with a battery backup. When the power is
turned on, the NVRAM operates just like any other SRAM. When
the power is turned off, the NVRAM draws just enough power
from the battery to retain its data. NVRAM is fairly common in
embedded systems. However, it is expensive-even more expensive
than SRAM, because of the battery-so its applications are
typically limited to the storage of a few hundred bytes of system-
critical information that can't be stored in any better way.
 Cache Memory
 A CPU cache is a cache used by the central processing unit of a
computer to reduce the average time to access memory. The cache
is a smaller, faster memory which stores copies of the data from
the most frequently used main memory locations. As long as most
memory accesses are cached memory locations, the average
latency of memory accesses will be closer to the cache latency
than to the latency of main memory.
 When the processor needs to read from or write to a location in
main memory, it first checks whether a copy of that data is in the
cache. If so, the processor immediately reads from or writes to the
cache, which is much faster than reading from or writing to main
memory
 Cache memory levels
◦ Level 1 (L1) cache
◦ is extremely fast but relatively small, and is usually
embedded in the processor chip (CPU).
◦ Very small(8 KB to 128 KB)

◦ Level 2 (L2) cache

◦ External cache as it is external to processor chip
◦ in the motherboard or near the microprocessor
◦ Larger then l1(64KB to 16MB)
 Cache memory levels
◦ Level 3 (L3) cache is typically specialized memory that
works to improve the performance of L1 and L2.
◦ It can be significantly slower than L1 or L2, but is usually
double the speed of RAM.
◦ In the case of multi core processor, each core may have
its own dedicated L1 and L2 cache, but share a common
L3 cache.
◦ PC have up to 8 MB
◦ But server may have 8 MB to 24 MB
Cache Memory
 Virtual Memory

Type of hard-disk space that is used to

extend RAM capacity.
When RAM space is limited, virtual
memory allows users to run more
software at once, provided the
computer’s CPU and operating system
are equipped to use it. The system
allocates some free disk space as an
extension of RAM; that is, the computer
swaps parts of the software program
between the hard disk and RAM as
needed.
Secondary Storage

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 Secondary Memory
 The computer usually uses its input/output channels to
access secondary storage and transfers the desired data
using intermediate area in primary storage. Secondary
storage does not lose the data when the device is
powered down—it is non-volatile. Per unit, it is
typically also an order of magnitude less expensive than
primary storage.
 The secondary storage is often formatted according to a
file system format, which provides the abstraction
necessary to organize data into files and directories,
providing also additional information (called metadata)
describing the owner of a certain file, the access time,
the access permissions, and other information. Hard
disk are usually used as secondary storage.
 Secondary Storage

• Offers the advantages of nonvolatility, greater

capacity, and greater economy

• Access methods, storage capacities, and

portability required are determined by the user’s
objective.

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 Access Methods

• Sequential: records must be retrieved in

order
– Devices used are called sequential access
storage devices (SASD)
• Direct: records can be retrieved in any order
– Devices used are called direct access storage
devices (DASDs)
• Parallel: Records can be retrieved simultaneously

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 Devices

• Magnetic tapes
• Magnetic disks
• RAID
• Storage area networks (SAN)
• Optical disks
• Magneto-optical (MO) disks
• Digital versatile disks (DVDs)

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 Magnetic Storage
• Exploits duality of magnetism and electricity
– Converts electrical signals into magnetic
charges
– Captures magnetic charge on a storage medium
– Later regenerates electrical current from stored
magnetic charge
• Polarity of magnetic charge represents bit
values zero and one

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 Magnetic Disk
• Flat, circular platter with metallic coating
that is rotated beneath read/write heads
• Random access device; read/write head
can be moved to any location on the
platter
• Hard disks and floppy disks
• Cost performance leader for general-
purpose on-line secondary storage
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51
Magnetic Disks

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 The read/write head:
• Each disk is fixed in place over the
spindle of the drive mechanism. The
read/write head is used to transfer data
between the computer and the disk. When
the disk spins, the read/write head moves
back and forth over the data access area
on the disk

MSIS 110: Introduction to Computers; Instructor: S. Mathiyalakan 53

54
 Tracks, sectors, and cluster
• On the disk, data is recorded in concentric recording bands called tracks.

• When a disk is formatted, the disk’s storage locations are divided into

wedge-shaped sections, which break the tracks into small arcs called

sectors.

• The smallest unit of disk space that can be written/read from is called a

cluster. A cluster is a group of sectors on a storage device. The Windows

operating system assigns a unique number to each cluster and then keeps

track of files on a disk by using a kind of

table,
 Magnetic Tape
• Ribbon of plastic with a coercible (usually
metallic oxide) surface coating
• Mounts in a tape drive for reading and writing
• Relatively slow serial access
• Compounds magnetic leakage; wraps upon
itself
• Susceptible to stretching, friction,
temperature variations

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 Optical Mass Storage Devices
• Store bit values as variations in light
reflection
• Standardized and relatively inexpensive
• Uses: read-only storage with low
performance requirements, applications
with high capacity requirements, and
where portability in a standardized format
is needed
MSIS 110: Introduction to Computers; Instructor: S. Mathiyalakan 59
 CD-ROM
• Read-only; data permanently embedded in
durable polycarbonate disc
• Bit values represented as flat areas (lands)
and concave dents (pits) in the reflective
layer
• Data recorded in single continuous track that
spirals outward from center of disc
• Popular medium for distributing software and
large data sets
MSIS 110: Introduction to Computers; Instructor: S. Mathiyalakan 60
 CD-ROM
Advantages Drawbacks
• Standardized format • Cannot be rewritten
• High density • Capacity limited to 700
• Cheap to manufacture MB
 CD-R
• Uses a laser that can be switched
between high and low power and a laser-
sensitive dye embedded in the disc
• Relatively cheap
• Common uses: create music CDs on
home computers, back up data from other
storage devices, create archives of large
data sets, and manufacture small
quantities of identical CDs
 CD-RW
• Enables nondestructive writing to optical
storage media
• Materials change state easily from non-
crystalline (amorphous), to crystalline, and
then back again
– Reflective layer is a compound of tellurium,
selenium, and tin
• Example: CD-RW
 DVD
• Improves on CD and CD-RW technology
– Increased track and bit density: smaller
wavelength lasers and more precise
mechanical control
– Improved error correction
– Multiple recording sites and layers
Digital Versatile Disk

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 Additional Devices and Media

• Memory cards
• Flash memory
• Expandable storage

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Expandable Storage

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 Summary
• Hardware - includes any machinery that assists with
the input, processing, and output activities of a CBIS

• Processing speed - often measured by the time it

takes to complete one machine cycle

• Primary storage (memory) - provides working

storage for program instructions and data

• Common forms of secondary storage - magnetic

tape, magnetic disk, compact disk, digital video disk,
and optical disk storage
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• To be continued …