INTRODUCTION TO MICROPROCESSOR

MICROPROCESSOR DEE2170
BY: MARINA GETRIE
Agenda
Overview & History
What is a microprocessor?
Microprocessor versus microcontroller
Evolution of Microprocessor
Types of Microprocessor

Microprocessor Structure
Basic of computer structure
Components of microprocessor

Microprocessor Operation
What are instructions?
What are instructions set architecture?

Microprocessor Software and Program Languages

Overview & History
 What is a Microprocessor?
Micro-> Small, Processor -> processing function.
A single or a few integrated digital electronic circuits that functions as Central Processing Unit (CPU) on a single
integrated chip (IC).
Accepts digital or binary data as input and processes this input according to the instructions stored in its memory.
Contain both combinational logic and sequential digital logic.
It contains millions of transistors connected by wires. These wires are carrying digital signals.
How does it looks like?
 What is inside the microprocessor?

Contains miniaturized transistors and other circuit elements on a single semiconductor integrated
circuit (IC)
Examining the
Microprocesso
r Chip
Microprocessor versus Microcontroller
MICROPROCESSOR MICROCONTROLLER

Processor on a chip used for digital signal Computer‐on‐a‐chip optimised to control

processing. electronic devices
Consist of one single processor on chip. Consist of microprocessor , memory and digital
input/output.
Examples:
Examples:
Intel Core 2
Microchip PIC
AMD Athlon
Intel 80196
Motorola 68HCxx
History of Microprocessor
1968 : The term "microprocessor" is first attributed to Viatron Computer
Systems describing the custom integrated circuit used in their System 21 small computer
system.
1969 : Lee Boysel created the Four-Phase Systems AL-1 an 8-bit CPU slice that was
expandable to 32-bits. Four-Phase Systems was acquired by Motorola in 1981.
1970 : Steve Geller and Ray Holt of Garrett AiResearch designed the 20-bit MP944 chip
set to implement the F-14A Central Air Data Computer on six metal-gate chips fabricated by
AMI
1971 : Intel introduced its first 4-bit microprocessor 4004
1972 : Intel introduced its 8-bit microprocessor 8008
 Evolution of Microprocessor
Intel 4004 Intel 8080 Intel 8086 Intel Core 2

16-bit microprocessor 64-bit microprocessor

Intel 8008 Intel 8085 Clock speed: 4.77MHz,
Intel I386
4-bit microprocessor 8-bit microprocessor 8MHz and 10MHz
Clock speed: 740kHz Clock speed: 2MHz Data bus : 16-bit
2300 transistors 6000 transistors Address bus : 20-bit
Could execute 60000 Could execute 5,00,000 Able to take 22,000
instructions per second instructions per second instructions which include
8-bit microprocessor multiplication or dvision
Clock speed: 3MHz
6500 transistors
Could execute 7,69,230 32-bit microprocessor
8-bit microprocessor instructions per second
Clock speed: 500kHz
Could execute 50000
instructions per second
PROCESSOR TYPE
VERSUS
NUMBER OF
TRANSISTORS
 Evolution
of
Microprocesso
r Application
(1971-1978)
 Evolution
of
Microprocesso
r Application
(1981-1986)
 Evolution
of
Microprocesso
r Application
(1991-1999)
 Evolution
of
Microprocesso
r Application
(2001-2008)
 Evolution
of
Microprocesso
r Application
(2010-2011)
 Types of Microprocessor
Microprocessor
Microprocessor

General
General Purpose
Purpose Application
Application Specific
Specific
Processors
Processors (GPP)
(GPP) Processor
Processor (ASP)
(ASP)

Digital
Digital Signal
Signal Processor
Processor
(DSP)
(DSP) ASIC
ASIC (Application
(Application Specific
Specific
GPP
GPP Proper
Proper :: General
General Microcontrollers:
Microcontrollers: Programmable
Programmable Integrated
Integrated Circuit)
Circuit)
Purpose
Purpose Applications
Applications Industrial
Industrial Applications
Applications microprocessor
microprocessor for
for Algorithm
Algorithm completely
completely
extensive
extensive numerical
numerical real
real implemented
implemented inin Hardware
Hardware
time
time computations
computations
 General Purpose
Processors(GPP)
 Processor not designed for any specialized purpose.
 Programmable processor and can be used in variety of
applications.
 Features
Program Memory
General datapath with large register file and general
ALU
 User benefits
Low time-to-market and NRE costs
High flexibility
 Application Specific
Processor (ASP)
Processor designed for specific applications only.
Features
Program memory
Optimized datapath
Special functional units
User Benefits
Dedicated and specialized tasks/instructions
Good performance in size and power
Microprocessor Structure
Basic Architecture of a Computer
A computer, large or small, can be represented functionally as below:-
Microprocessor/Central Processing Unit
(CPU)
-Performs necessary arithmetic and logic
operations
-Controls the timing and general
operation of the complete system
Input/Output(I/O) Devices
-Used for feeding data into the CPU
-Examples: Keyboards, USB storage,
printers.
-This allows the computer to
communicate with the outside world.
Memory
-Stores both instructions to be executed.
-Usually consists of RAMs (random-access
memories) and ROMs(read-only
memories)
Microprocessor / CPU
◦ the portion of a computer system that carries out the instructions of a
computer program
◦ the primary element carrying out the computer's functions. It is the unit
that reads and executes program instructions.
◦ The data in the instruction tells the processor what to do.

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Memory
◦ physical devices used to store data or programs (sequences of instructions) on a
temporary or permanent basis for use in an electronic digital computer.
◦ Computer main memory comes in two principal varieties: random-access memory (RAM)
and read-only memory (ROM).
◦ RAM can be read and written to anytime the CPU commands it, but ROM is pre-loaded
with data and software that never changes, so the CPU can only read from it.
◦ ROM is typically used to store the computer's initial start-up instructions.
◦ The contents of RAM are erased when the power to the computer is turned off, but ROM
retains its data indefinitely.
◦ In a PC, the ROM contains a specialized program called the BIOS that orchestrates loading
the computer's operating system from the hard disk drive into RAM whenever the
computer is turned on or reset.

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Input/Output (I/O)
◦ Input/output (I/O), refers to the communication between an information processing
system (such as a computer), and the outside world possibly a human, or another
information processing system.
◦ Inputs: the signals or data received by the CPU
◦ Outputs: the signals or data sent from the CPU
◦ Devices that provide input or output to the computer are called peripherals
◦ On a typical personal computer, peripherals include input devices like the keyboard and
mouse, and output devices such as the display and printer. Hard disk drives, USB storage
drives and optical disc drives serve as both input and output devices.

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Basic Architecture of
Microprocessor/CPU
The CPU/microprocessor contains:
-Control Unit
-Arithmetic Logic Unit
-Register Array

ALU: Arithmetic Logic

Unit
ROM: Read Only
Memory
RAM: Random Access
Memory
Control unit
The circuitry that controls the flow of information through the processor, and coordinates the
activities of the other units within it.
In a way, it is the "brain within the brain", as it controls what happens inside the processor,
which in turn controls the rest of the PC.
On a regular processor, the control unit performs the tasks of fetching, decoding, managing
execution and then storing results.

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Arithmetic Logic Unit
(ALU)
A combinational network that performs arithmetic and
logical operations on the data.
The most important components in a microprocessor, and is
typically the part of the processor that is designed first.
Able to perform the basic logical operations (AND, OR),
including the addition operation.
Register Array
Used for temporary storage of data, instructions and addresses during execution of a program
until they are send to the ALU, control section or memory.
Registers are normally measured by the number of bits they can hold, for example, an "8-bit
register" or a "32-bit register".
There are a few types of register array as below:-
Accumulator(ACC) or Result Register: To store temporary result after arithmetic and logical operations
have been performed.
General Purpose Registers or Scratch Pad Memory : To be used for variety of purposes.
Instruction Register (IR) :Stores the next instructions to be executed.
Program Counter: Holds the address of the next instruction that has to be fetched
Stack Pointer(SP) : 16-bit register and is used by the programmer to maintain a stack in the memory
Status Register or Condition Flags : Used to provide indication of certain conditions that arise during
arithmetic and logical operations.
 Busses
Can be viewed as data highways.
Allow exchange of words between the functional blocks.
Has a wire or line for each bit and allows exchange of all
bits in a parallel (Simultaneous processing)
Address Bus: μP transmits the address of I/O device or
memory locations which it desires to access. It is
unidirectional.
Data Bus: μP send and receive data to and from different
devices (I/O and memory) including instructions stored in
memory. It is bi-directional.
Control Bus: for transmitting and receiving timing and
control signals between the μP and various devices in the
system to regulate its operation and to communicate with
other devices.
Microprocessor Clock
Also called clock rate. This is the speed at which a microprocessor executes instructions.
The CPU requires a fixed number of clock ticks (or clock cycles) to execute each instruction. The
faster the clock, the more instructions the CPU can execute per second. Clock speeds are
expressed in megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz ((GHz).
the CPU clock speed and the bus clock speed should be the same so that neither component
slows down the other.
What is microprocessor clock made of?
Crystal
Microprocessor Operation
What are instructions?
• Instructions are the most basic actions the processor can take:
– ADD AX, BX — Add value AX to BX and store in AX
– CMP AX, 5 — Compare value in AX to 5
– JE 16 — Jump ahead 16 bytes if comparison was equal
• High level programming languages (C, C++, Java) allow many processor instructions to be
written simply:
– if (A + B = 5) then… — Jump if sum of A and B is 5
• Every program must be converted to the processor instructions of the computer it will be run
on
What are instructions set architecture?
Computer architecture is defined by the instructions a processor can execute
Programs written for one processor can run on any other processor of the
same architecture
Current architectures include:
◦ IA32 (x86)
◦ IA64
◦ ARM
◦ PowerPC
◦ SPARC
What is microarchitecture?
Microarchitecture is the detailed steps processor takes to execute a particular set of
instructions
Processors of the same architecture have the same instructions but may carry them out in
different ways
Microarchitecture Features:
– Cache memory
– Pipelining
– Out-of-Order Execution
– Superscalar Issue
Simplified Microarchitecture
Fetch Unit gets the next instructions from the cache.
Decode Unit determines type of instruction.
Instruction and data sent to the Execution Unit.
Write Unit stores result.
Sequential Processing

Works on one instruction at a time

Pipelined Processing
In-Order Pipeline

In-Order execution requires instructions to be executed in the original program order

Superscalar Issue

Superscalar issue allows multiple instructions to be issued at the same time.

Fetching & Execution Cycles
Fetching Cycles
◦ The fetch cycle takes the instruction required from memory, stores it in the
instruction register, and
◦ moves the program counter on one so that it points to the next instruction.
Execute cycle
◦ The actual actions which occur during the execute cycle of an instruction.
◦ depend on both the instruction itself and the addressing mode specified to
be used to access the data that may be required.

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Fetching an instruction
Step 1: Instruction pointer (program counter) hold the address
of the next instruction to be fetch.

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 FETCHING AN INSTRUCTION
Step 2: Contents of the program counter are passed across the Address
Bus

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 FETCHING AN INSTRUCTION (cont.)

Step 3: The address moves over the address bus to the Memory Access
Register.

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 FETCHING AN INSTRUCTION (cont.)

Step 4: The memory location of the next instruction is located.

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 FETCHING AN INSTRUCTION (cont.)

Step 5:
The
contents
of the
memory at
the given
location
are moved
across the
data bus.

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 FETCHING AN INSTRUCTION (cont.)

Step 6: The
contents of
the memory
at the given
location are
moved from
the data bus
to the
instruction
register.

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Microprocessor Software
&
Program Languages
Programming Language
Program : A sequence of instructions designed to perform a particular task in a
computer.
Software : A set of programs written for a computer-based system.
Programming Language

Machine Language(ML) : Instructions are only understood by the

microprocessor in binary form. Only machine language can produce program
(instructions) in binary form.

Assembly Language(AL) : Instructions including storage locations are

represented by alphanumeric symbols, called mnemonics. Program written in
assembly language must be translated to machine language before it is sent to
microprocessor.

High-Level Language(HLL): Programming language such as C, FORTRAN, or

Pascal that enables a programmer to write programs that are more or less
independent of a particular type of computer. Closer to human languages and
further from machine languages.
Software Tools
Editor Compiler Assembler System Monitor
• For writing and • Translates a • Translates AL • For monitoring
editing the HLL program to program to a memory or
program a ML ML program. register,
program(object entering ML
code) program in
hexadecimal
format
Next Lesson..
Intel 8085
Introduced in 1977.
8-bit microprocessor.
Its actual name is 8085A.
Single NMOS device.
Contains approximately 6200 transistors.
Its dimension is 164mm x 222mm.
It is having 40 pins Dual-Inline-Package(DIP)

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Intel 8086
16-bit microprocessor chip
Development work on the 8086 design started
in the spring of 1976 .
It was introduced to the market in the summer
of 1978.
The Intel 8088, released in 1979, was a slightly
modified chip with an external 8-bit data bus.

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