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NDT
Ultrasonic Testing

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PCN GEN Issue 8 (Based on ISO 9712:2012)
Level I Level II
Training (PSL 40 hrs 80 hrs
57A)
Experience (PSL 3 months 9 months
30)
(randomly
verified)
Vision Requirements (PSL 44): Near Vision – J1/N
4.5 Colour Vision: OK

No. of Pass
Questions Percentage
General 40 70%
Specific 36 70%
Practical - 2 plates and 3 pipes – 70% each
sample
Pass Percentage: Average : 80%
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 NDT
NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

Definition:

Testing of material, component or assembly by

means, which do not affect its ultimate use.

Non Destructive Testing is the applied use of

technologies for inspecting materials to known
standards

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 Destructive Testing

• Small percentage of
batches of product
tested
• Measurement of actual
forces applied
• Product tested cannot
be reused
• Product not tested,
assumed to have the
same properties as
product tested

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 NDT Methods
MOST COMMON METHODS

 Penetrant Testing
 Magnetic Particle Testing
 Eddy Current Testing
 Ultrasonic Testing
 Radiographic Testing

OTHER METHODS

 Visual Testing
 Acoustic Emission
 Magnetic Flux Leakage
 Infrared Testing
 Other methods

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 NDT APPLICATIONS
NDT applications are carried out at almost any
stage in the production or life cycle of a
component:

– To assist in product development

– To screen or sort incoming materials
– To monitor, improve or control
manufacturing processes
– To verify proper processing such as heat
treating
– To verify proper assembly
– To inspect for in-service damage
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Which is the best NDT method?
Depends on many factors and
conditions

•Cost
•Material type
•Equipment availability
•Qualified Personnel availability
•Types of Defects sought
•Sensitivity required
•Component location/position
•Quantity of components
•Condition of component- surface
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 ADVANTAGES of NDT
 Capable of testing 100% of products
 Capable of testing before, during, and
after production of components
 Capable of testing parts or components
in service/ in operation/ on site
 Capable of retesting the products
 Various materials, sizes, geometries
may be tested using specific NDT
methods.
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Prevention is Better Than Cure

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 Mechanical Disasters
 Costly
 May be injurious or deadly

 May cause hazards to environment

 May cause damage to reputation of the

company

 May be prevented if NDT and Inspection

were carried out properly

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Industries involved with NDT:
•Oil and Gas
•Construction
•Metal Fabrication
•Chemical
•Aerospace
•Power Generation
•Transportation
Metal Manufacturing

•Medical
Composite Manufacturing

•Electronic
Inspection and Testing

•Research and Development mmz 2003

 CERTIFICATIONS AND
QUALIFICATIONS
 NDT personnel
should posses : High Skill, Knowledge, and Integrity

 To achieve these : Proper training and certification

required

 Training : By qualified training personnel and

accredited training centres

 International Certification Schemes available:

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 CERTIFICATIONS AND
QUALIFICATIONS
 Company Certification
Employees are trained and certified in accordance with the
requirements of the company.
– In-house training
– Internal Certification issued by company
– Valid in the specific company only

 Central Certification

Personnel are trained and certified in accordance with the

requirements of independent bodies:
– Training conducted by Accredited Training Centres
– Examinations issued by Independent Certification Bodies
– Certificates issued to personnel

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Training & Certification

Any Questions Please ?

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Ultrasonic Testing

Part 1

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 Basic Principles of Ultrasonic
Testing

 To understand and
appreciate the
capability and
limitation of UT
 Most common method
used is the PULSE
ECHO technique

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 Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing
Sound is transmitted in the material to be tested
The sound reflected back to the
probe is displayed on the Flaw
probe Detector

Defect

0 2 4 6 8 10

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Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing
The distance the sound traveled can be displayed on the Flaw Detector
The screen can be calibrated to give accurate readings of the distance

Signal from the backwall

Bottom / Backwall
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The ability to support
sound depends on the
DENSITY & ELASTICITY
of the medium

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Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing
The presence of a Defect in the material shows up on the screen of
the flaw detector with a less distance than the bottom of the material

The BWE signal

Defect signal

Defect

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Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

60 mm

The depth of the defect can be read with reference

to the marker on the screen
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 Y
axis

Peak
Vertical /
Amplitude (%)

Amount of
Echo / Amplitude
reflected sound
energy

X
Division
axis
0 2 4 6 8 10
Sub-division
Horizontal / Time Base / Depth / Distance /
Range / Beam Path Length(BPL)
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Calculation:

Range
1 Number of Echoes =
Thickness cal. blocks

Range
2 Division = Number of division (10)

Division
3 Sub-Division =
Number of sub-div. (5)

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 10 20 30 40

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 Thickness / depth measurement
The closer the reflector
to the surface, the signal
will be more to the left of
C B A
the screen

30 46 68

The thickness is read from the screen

The THINNER the material

C the less distance the sound
travel
B

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Ultrasonic Testing

Principles of Sound

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 Ultrasonic
 Sound : caused by mechanical vibration

What is Ultrasonic?
Very High Frequency sound – above 20 KHz
20,000 cps

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 Acoustic Spectrum

Sonic / Audible
Ultrasonic
Human
> 20kHz = 20,000Hz
16Hz - 20kHz

0 10 100 1K 10K 100K 1M 10M 100m

Ultrasonic Testing
0.5MHz - 25MHz
Ultrasonic : Sound with frequency above 20 KHz
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 ULTRASONIC TESTING
Very High Frequency
5 M Hz

Glass
High Frequency
5 K Hz

DRUM BEAT
Low Frequency Sound
40 Hz
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  Sound waves are the vibration of particles in
solids liquids or gases
 Particles vibrate about a mean position
 Sound follows a waveform
wavelength
Displacement

 The distance
taken to
wavelength complete one
cycle
One cycle
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 Properties of a sound
 Sound cannot travel in
vacuum
 Sound energy to be
transmitted /
transferred from one
particle to another

GAS LIQUID SOLID

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 Sound
 Wavelength :
The distance between successive peak of a wave
The time taken for one complete cycle
– Measured in Meter or mm

 Frequency :
The number of cycles per unit time
– Measured in Hertz (Hz) or Cycles per second (cps)

 Velocity :
How quick the sound travels
Distance per unit time
– Measured in meter / second (m / sec)

 Period:
Time taken for one complete cycle
Distance per unit time and measured in meter / second (m / sec)

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 WAVELENGTH
Wavelength is a function of FREQUENCY &
VELOCITY
Velocity
Wavelength
 c
f
Frequency
Therefore :
c
f  or c=λXf
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 High Frequency Sound

  c
5MHz compression wave
f
probe in steel

5,900,000
  1.18mm
5,000,000
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 Frequency
 Frequency : Number of cycles per
second

1 second 1 second 1 second

1 cycle per 1 second = 3 cycle per 1 second = 18 cycle per 1 second

1 Hertz 3 Hertz = 18 Hertz
THE HIGHER THE FREQUENCY THE SMALLER THE WAVELENGTH
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 Frequency

 1 Hz = 1 cycle per second

 1 Kilohertz = 1 KHz = 1000Hz
 1 Megahertz = 1 MHz = 1000 000Hz

20 KHz = 20 000 Hz

5 M Hz = 5 000 000 Hz

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 Frequency

1 M Hz 5 M Hz 10 M Hz 25 M Hz

LONGEST SMALLEST
=v/f

F  F 
Which probe has the smallest wavelength?

Which probe has the longest wavelength?

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FREQUENCY
GENERAL APPLICATION
OF PROBE
Very coarse grained materials like C.I., S. G. Iron, austenitic
0.5 MHz
Stainless Steel, soft plastics, rubber, composites etc.
For coarse grained materials like steel castings and those with very
1.0 MHz
high thickness.
For large sized components with fair sensitivity requirement like
2.0 MHz 
testing of forgings.
For optimum sensitivity, resolution and penetration. For
4.0 MHz  inspection of fine grained material and those involving low
thickness.
For very high sensitivity or checking thin walled components used
6.0 MHz
in critical space and nuclear applications.
For obtaining exceptionally high sensitivity and resolution. For
10.0 MHz
inspection of materials like titanium, managing steel etc.

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 Effect of frequency
Low Frequency
Long wavelength
More beam spread
Shorter near zone
Better penetration
Less attenuation
Longer dead zone
Less sensitivity
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High Frequency
Short wavelength
Less beam spread
Longer near zone
Less penetration
More attenuation
Shorter dead zone
Higher sensitivity
 Effects of Diameter

Large Diameter Small Diameter

Less beam spread More beam spread

Longer near zone Shorter near zone

Better penetration Less penetration

Less attenuation (due to
More attenuation
beam spread)
Difficult coupling on curved Easier coupling on curved
surfaces surfaces
More coverage on flat Less coverage on flat
surfaces surfaces
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Probe frequency, bandwidth & damping

• An ultrasonic probe transmits sound energy at a range

of frequencies, not just at the stated frequency which is
known as the bandwith.

• Bandwith is the width of the frequency spectrum

between the high and low cut-off frequency

• For example a SMHz probe may produce a frequency

range of 4 to 6MHz.

• The bandwidth is also an indication of the damping

factor.

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 Broad Band Probes Narrow Band Probes
They are highly damped They have low damping
Have a short pulse length A longer pulse length
(typically 1 to 2 cycles) (typically 3 or 4 cycles)

A short ringing time (dead zone) A long ringing time (dead zone)

Better resolving.power Poor resolution

Poor penetration Good penetration

Example : Y
A 4Mhz probe may produce a frequency
range of 3 to 5 Mhz which is measured at
below -3db point 3dB
E
• A – Peak frequency ( Frequency at which the
maximum amplitude is observed )
• B & C – Cut-off frequency ( Frequency at which the
amplitude of transmitted energy at 3dB below that
a peak frequency ) X
• D – Centre frequency ( Upper and lower cut-off C D A B
frequency )
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 Wavelength and frequency
 The higher the frequency the smaller the
wavelength
 The smaller the wavelength the higher the
sensitivity
 Sensitivity : The smallest detectable
flaw by the system or
technique

 In UT the smallest detectable flaw is ½ 

(half the wavelength)

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What would be the smallest defects that
could be found in steel with a velocity of
6km/sec using a 3Mhz probes.

6,000,000
  3,000,000  2mm

Smallest defects can be detected is 1mm

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Which of the following compressional probe
has the highest sensitivity?
1 MHz

2 MHz

5 MHz

10 MHz

10 MHz

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 Acoustic Spectrum
Sonic / Audible
Ultrasonic
Human
> 20kHz = 20,000Hz
16Hz - 20kHz

0 10 100 1K 10K 100K 1M 10M 100m

Testing 0.5MHz - 50MHz

Ultrasonic : Sound with frequency above 20 KHz

Very high frequency = Very small wavelength
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 Velocity
 The velocity of sound in a particular material is
CONSTANT
 It is the product of DENSITY and ELASTICITY of the
material
 It will NOT change if frequency changes
 Only the wavelength changes
 Examples:
V Compression in steel : 5960 m/s
V Compression in water : 1470 m/s
V Compression in air : 330 m/s

5 M Hz

STEEL WATER
mmz 2003 AIR
 Compressional or Shear or transverse
Material longitudinal wave velocity wave velocity
(m/s) (m/s)
Aluminium 6,400 3,130
Brass 4,372 2,100
Cast iron 3,500 2,200
Copper 4,769 2,325
Gold 3,240 1,200
Iron 5,957 3,224
Lead 2,400 790
Oil 1,440 -
Perspex 2,740 1,320
Mild steel 5,960 3,240
Stainless steel 5,740 3,130
Water 1,480 -
Tungsten 5,174 2,380
Zinc 4,170 2,480
Zirconium mmz 2003
4,650 2,300
 Velocity

What is the velocity difference in steel compared with in

water?
4 times

If the frequency remain constant, in what material does

sound has the highest velocity, steel, water, or air?
Steel
If the frequency remain constant, in what material does
sound has the shortest wavelength, steel, water, or air?

Air
Remember the formula
mmz
= 2003
v/f
 Sound Waveforms
Sound travels in different waveforms in
different conditions

•Compression wave
•Shear wave
•Surface wave
•Lamb wave

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 Compression / Longitudinal
 Vibration and propagation in the same
direction / parallel
 Travel in solids, liquids and gases

Particle vibration

Propagation
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 Shear / Transverse
 Vibration at right angles / perpendicular to
direction of propagation and have a whip like
action
 Travel in solids only
 Velocity  1/2 compression (same material)

Particle vibration

Propagation
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 Surface Wave
 Elliptical vibration
 Velocity 8% less than shear

 Penetrate one wavelength deep

Easily dampened by heavy grease or wet finger

Follows curves but reflected by sharp corners or
surface cracks
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 Lamb / Plate Wave
 Produced by the manipulation of surface
waves and others
 Used mainly to test very thin materials /
plates
 Velocity varies with plate thickness and
frequencies

SYMETRIC mmz 2003

ASSYMETRIC
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 Compression v Shear
Frequency Compression Shear
 0.5MHz  11.8  6.5

 1 MHz  5.9  3.2

 2MHz  2.95  1.6

 4MHz  1.48  0.8

 6MHZ  0.98  0.54

The smaller the wavelength the better the

sensitivity
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 Sound travelling through a material
 Velocity varies according to the material

Compression waves Shear waves

• Steel5960m/sec
• Water • Steel3245m/sec
1470m/sec
• Air • Water NA
344m/sec
• Copper • Air NA
4700m/sec
• Copper 2330m/sec

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 Sound travelling through a material
Loses intensity
due to

Beam Spread Attenuation

• Sound beam comparable • Energy losses due to
to a torch beam material
•Reduction differs for small •Made up of absorption
and large reflectors and scatter

Attenuation
is defined as the loss in intensity of the ultrasonic beam as it passes
through a material and is dependant upon the physical properties of the
material. mmz 2003
 Scatter
 The bigger the grain
size the worse the
problem
 The higher the
frequency of the
probe the worse the
problem

1 MHz 5 MHz

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Beam Spread

The sound beam

spread out and the
intensity decreases

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Beam spread and Attenuation combined
Attenuation and beam spread.
80%
6dB+ reduction
FSH
80%
40%
FSH
FSH
36%
FSH

No attenuation,only beam
spread. 6dB reduction

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 Sound at an Interface

 Sound will be either transmitted across

or reflected back

Reflected

How much is reflected and

Interface transmitted depends upon the
relative acoustic impedance of the 2
materials

Transmitted mmz 2003

 Acoustic Impedance

 Definition Formula
The Resistance to the
passage of sound Z   V
within a material  = Density , V = Velocity

 Measured in  Steel 46.7 x 106

kg / m2 x sec  Water 1.48 x 106
 Air 0.0041 x 106
 Perspex 3.2 x 106

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 % Sound Reflected at an Interface
2
 Z1  Z 2 
   100  % reflected
 Z1  Z 2 

% Sound Reflected + % Sound Transmitted = 100%

Therefore
% Sound Transmitted = 100% - % Sound Reflected
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 Sound at an Interface
 Sound will be either transmitted across
or reflected back

Reflected

How much is reflected and

Interface transmitted depends upon the
relative acoustic impedance of the 2
materials

Transmitted mmz 2003

 How much sound is reflected at a
steel to water interface?
 Z1 (Steel) = 46.7 x 106
 Z2 (Water) =1.48 x 106
2
 46.7  1.48 
 46.7  1.48   100  % reflected

2
 45.22 
 48.18   100  % reflected
 

0. 93856 100  88.09% reflected

2

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 How much sound transmitted?

100 % - the reflected sound

Example : Steel to water

100 % - 88 % ( REFLECTED) = 12 % TRANSMITTED

The BIGGER the Acoustic Impedance Ratio

or Difference between the two materials:
More sound REFLECTED than transmitted.

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 Air Steel

Steel
Air
Large Acoustic Impedance Large Acoustic Impedance
Ratio Ratio

Steel Aluminum

Steel
Steel

No Acoustic Impedance Small Acoustic Impedance

Difference Difference
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 Ultrasonic Displays
 A scan
Display of the ultrasonic signal in
which the X-axis represents the
time and the Y-axis the amplitude.
The CRT (Cathode Ray Tube)
display

The Horizontal axis :

Represents time base /
beam path length / The Vertical axis :
distance / depth Represent the amount of
sound energy returned to
the crystal
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 Ultrasonic Displays
B scan -The End View Display

 Image of the results of an ultrasonic examination showing a

cross section of the test object perpendicular to the scanning
surface and parallel to a reference direction.

 The cross section will normally be the plane through which the
individual A-scans have been collected.

B mmz 2003
 Ultrasonic Displays
C scan-The Plan View Display

 Image of the results of an ultrasonic examination showing a cross

section of the test object parallel to the scanning surface.

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 Ultrasonic Displays
D scan - The Side View Display

 Image of the results of an ultrasonic examination showing a cross

section of the test object perpendicular to the scanning surface and
perpendicular to the projection of the beam axis on the scanning
surface.
 The D-scan will normally be perpendicular to the Bscan.

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Advantages of ultrasonic Testing

 Internal defects can be detected and sized

 Thick specimens take no more time to examine than thin ones
 Access to only one side of the component is needed
 There is no radiation hazard in ultrasonic examination, and hence no
disruption of work as there is with radiography
 Planar defects can be detected, irrespective of their orientation

Disadvantages of ultrasonic Testing

 A high degree of operator skill and integrity is needed. Hence, the need for
trained and certified NDT personnel
 In most examinations, there is no permanent record of the inspection as
there is in radiography
 In certain materials, like austenitic steel, the large grain size found in
welds can cause attenuation and this may mask defects
 Spurious indications, and the misreading of signals, can result in
unnecessary repairs

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