NDT Training & Certification

Ultrasonic Testing
Part 2

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 Ultrasonic Testing techniques
 Pulse Echo

 Through Transmission

 Transmission with Reflection

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 Pulse Echo Technique
 Single probe sends
and receives sound
 Gives an indication
of defect depth and
dimensions
 Not fail safe

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 Defect Position

B
A

No indication from defect A (wrong orientation)

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 Through Transmission Technique
Tx Rx
Transmitting and
receiving probes
on opposite sides
of the specimen

Presence of defect
indicated by
reduction in
transmission signal

No indication of
defect location

Fail safe method

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mmz 2003
Through Transmission Technique

Advantages Disadvantages
 Less attenuation  Defect not located

 No probe ringing  Defect can’t be

 No dead zone identified

 Vertical defects
 Orientation does
don’t show
not matter
 Must be automated

 Need access to
both surfaces
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 Transmission with Reflection
T R

Also known as:

Tandem Technique or
Pitch and Catch Technique
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 Ultrasonic Pulse
A short pulse of electricity is applied to
a piezo-electric crystal
 The crystal begins to vibration increases
to maximum amplitude and then decays

Maximum

10% of
Maximum

Pulse length mmz 2003

 Ultrasonic Pulse
• Is created by charging a capacitor in the circuitry then suddenly
releasing this charge oC electrical energy, about IKv to 2Kv, Into
the probe.

• This electrical energy is‘ converted into a mechanical vibration

by the piezo electric crystal in the probe.

• The ultrasonic vibrations are formed by the collapse of the

crystal after the electrical energy has been removed.

• The behavior of the crystal, on collapse, can be likened to the

behavior of a spring when it is stretched then released- The
spring will return to its former shape then shorten then stretch,
etc., until it finally comes to rest in its original shape.

• This cycle of expansion and contraction is what forms the

ultrasonic pulse.

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 Pulse Length
 The longer the pulse, the more
penetrating the sound
 The shorter the pulse the better the
sensitivity and resolution

Short pulse, 1 or 2 cycles Long pulse 12 cycles

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 Ideal Pulse Length
• To show separate, clear reflected signals on the CRT then
the pulses of sound must be short and sharp.

• To shorten the pulses the ultrasonic crystal must be

damped with a backing medium which absorbs the sound
energy

PULSE LENGTH controls RESOLUTION.

5 cycles for weld testing

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 RESOLUTION
Resolution is the ability to separate on the time
base two or more reflectors that are close together
in terms of beam path length.

0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10

Longer Pulse Shorter Pulse

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 PULSE REPETITION FREQUENCY
(P.R.F.) or (P.R.R)

 The number of pulses of ultrasonic energy that leave the

probe in a given time (usually per second).

 Each pulse of energy that leaves the probe must return

before the next pulse leaves otherwise they collide
causing "ghost" or spurious echoes to appear on the CRT.

 The time taken for the pulse to travel from die probe and
return is known as the transit time.

 The time between pulses leaving the probe is known as

the clock interval.

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 The Sound Beam
 Dead Zone
 Near Zone or Fresnel Zone

 Far Zone or Fraunhofer Zone

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 The Sound Beam

NZ FZ Main
Beam

Intensity
varies

Exponential Decay

Distance
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 DEAD ZONE
 Seen on the CRT as an extension of the initial pulse,

 the dead zone is the ringing time of the crystal and is

minimized by the damping medium behind the crystal.

 Flaws or the reflectors, that lying in the dead zone region of

the beam will not be detected.

 The dead zone can be seen at the start of the trace on a CRT
displaying A-scan, but only with single crystal probes.

 The dead zone increases when the probe frequency

decreases.

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Initial Pulse

0 2 4 6 8 10

Dead Zone

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 The side lobes has multi
minute main beams
Two identical defects may
give different amplitudes of
signals

Near
Side Lobes
Zone
The main beam or the centre
beam has the highest
intensity of sound energy

Main Lobe Any reflector hit by the main

beam will reflect the high
amount of energy
Main Beam

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 Sound Beam
Near Zone Far Zone
 Thickness  Thickness
measurement measurement
 Detection of defects  Defect detection
 Sizing of large  Sizing of all defects
defects only

Near zone length as small as possible

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 Near Zone
(fresnel zone)
2
D
Near Zone 
4
V

f
2
D f
Near Zone 
4V
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 Near Zone
 What is the near zone length of a
5MHz compression probe with a
crystal diameter of 10mm in steel?
2
D f
Near Zone 
4V
10  5,000,000
2

4  5,920,000
 21.1mm
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 Near Zone
2 2
D D f
Near Zone  
4 4V
 The bigger the diameter the bigger
the near zone
 The higher the frequency the bigger
the near zone
 The lower the velocity the bigger the
near zone
Should large diameter crystal probes have a high
or low frequency? mmz 2003
Which of the above probes has the longest Near Zone ?

1 M Hz
5 M Hz
1 M Hz 5 M Hz

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 Near Zone
2 2
D D f
Near Zone  
4 4V
 The bigger the diameter the bigger
the near zone
 The higher the frequency the bigger
the near zone
 The lower the velocity the bigger the
near zone
Should large diameter crystal probes have a high
or low frequency? mmz 2003
 Beam Spread
 In
the far zone (fraunhoffer) sound pulses spread
out as they move away from the crystal

/2


 K KV
Sine  or
2 D Df
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 FAR ZONE
(fraunhoffer zone)
 Beyond the near zone Far Zone
exists
 The amount or beam divergence
depends upon the crystal size and
the wavelength

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 Beam Spread

Sine   K  or KV
2 D Df

Edge,K=1.22
20dB,K=1.08
6dB,K=0.56
Beam axis
or Main Beam

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 Beam Spread
 K KV
Sine  or
2 D Df
 The bigger the diameter the
smaller the beam spread
 The higher the frequency the
smaller the beam spread

Which has the larger beam spread, a compression

or a shear wave probe?
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 Beam Spread
 Whatis the beam spread of a 10mm,5MHz
compression wave probe in steel?

 KV
Sine 
2 Df
1.08  5920

5000  10
 0.1278  7.35 o

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 Beam Spread
 Whatis the beam spread of a 10mm,4MHz
compression wave probe is 3200m/sec Ans:4.96

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Which of the above probes has the Largest Beam
Spread ?

1 M Hz
5 M Hz
1 M Hz 5 M Hz

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 Beam Spread
 K KV
Sine  or
2 D Df
 The bigger the diameter the
smaller the beam spread
 The higher the frequency the
smaller the beam spread

Which has the larger beam spread, a compression

or a shear wave probe?
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 FAR ZONE
The amplitudes of reflected sound from large and small
reflectors follow different laws.

LARGE REFLECTORS
(larger than the width of the ultrasonic beam) follow the
INVERSE LAW - The amplitude is inversely proportional to the
distance/i.e... if the distance is doubled then the signal
amplitude is halved (i.e.... reduced by 6dB).

SMALL REFLECTORS
(smaller than the width of the beam) follow the
INVERSE SQUARE LAW - The amplitude is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance, i.e. if the distance
is doubled then the amplitude from the second reflector is one
quarter of the amplitude of the nearer (12dB less).

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LARGE REFLECTORS SMALL REFLECTORS
(INVERSE LAW) (INVERSE SQUARE LAW)

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Testing close to side walls

0 2 4 6 8 10

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 Sound at an Interface
 Sound will be either transmitted
across or reflected back
Reflected

How much is reflected and

Interface transmitted depends upon the
relative acoustic impedance of
the 2 materials

Transmitted mmz 2003

The Phenomenon of Sound
REFLECTION
REFRACTION
DIFFRACTION

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The Phenomenon of Sound
REFLECTION
REFRACTION
DIFFRACTION

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 Law of Reflection
 Angle of Incidence = Angle of Reflection

60o 60o

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Inclined incidence(not at 90o )
Incident

Transmitted

The sound is refracted due to differences in

sound velocity in the 2 DIFFERENT materials
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 REFRACTION
 Only occurs when:
The incident angle is other than 0°

30°

Water Steel Water

Steel Steel Steel

Refracted

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 REFRACTION
 Only occurs when:
The incident angle is other than 0°
The Two Materials has different
VELOCITIES

30°
30°

Steel Water

Steel Steel
65°
30°

No Refraction Refracted
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 Snell’s Law
Normal

Incident I
Material 1

Material 2 Refracted
R

Sine I Vel in Material 1


Sine R Vel in Material 2
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 Snell’s Law
C
20 Sine I Vel in Material 1

Sine R Vel in Material 2
Perspex Sine 20 2730

Steel Sine 48.3 5960
48.3 0.4580  0.4580
C

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 Snell’s Law
C Sine I Vel in Material 1
15 
Sine R Vel in Material 2

Perspex Sine 15 2730


Sine R 5960
Steel
5960
34.4 SinR  Sin15
2730
C
SinR  0.565
R  34.4
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 Snell’s Law
C
20

Perspex

Steel
48.3

C
24
S

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 Snell’s Law
C
C When an incident beam of sound
approaches an interface of two
different materials:
REFRACTION occurs

Perspex
There may be more than one waveform
Steel transmitted into the second material,
example: Compression and Shear

When a waveform changes

into another waveform:
C MODE CHANGE
C
SS

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 Snell’s Law
If the angle of Incident is
C increased the angle of
refraction also increases

Up to a point where the

Compression Wave is at
Perspex 90° from the Normal

C
Steel 90° This happens at the
FIRST CRITICAL ANGLE

SC
CS
S

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 1st Critical Angle
C 27.4 Compression wave refracted
at 90 degrees

33

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 2nd Critical Angle
C
C
57

S (Surface Wave)
90

Shear wave refracted at 90 degrees

Shear wave becomes a surface wave

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 1st Critical Angle Calculation
C 27.2 Sine I 2730

Sine 90 5960
Perspex Sin90  1
C
Steel 2730
SinI 
5960
S SinI  0.458

I  27.26
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 2nd Critical Angle Calculation
C C Sine I 2730
57.4 
Sine 90 3240
Perspex Sin90  1
S
Steel 2730
SinI 
3240
SinI  0.8425

I  57.4
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 Before the 1st. Critical Angle: There
1st. are both Compression and Shear
wave in the second material
C
At the FIRST CRITICAL ANGLE
2nd. Compression wave refracted at 90°
Shear wave at 33 degrees in the
material

90° Between the 1st. And 2nd.

Beyond the 2nd. Critical Critical Angle: Only SHEAR
Angle: All waves are wave in the material.
reflected out of the Compression is reflected out
material. NO wave in of the material.
the material.
S C At the 2nd. Critical Angle: Shear
is refracted to 90° and become
33° SURFACE wave

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mmz 2003
 Summary
 Standard angle probes between
1st and 2nd critical angles
(45,60,70)
 Stated angle is refracted angle in
steel
 No angle probe under 35, and
more than 80: to avoid being 2
waves in the same material.
C S

C
S
mmz 2003 One Defect Two Echoes
 Snell’s Law
 Calculatethe 1st critical angle for a
perspex/copper interface
 V Comp perspex : 2730m/sec

 V Comp copper : 4700m/sec

2730
SinI   0.5808  35.5
4700

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